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SECTION ONE: LIVELIHOODS ANALYSIS

Introduction

Livelihoods analysis aims at understanding how people source, develop and use assets within a complex set of trends, shocks, and formal and informal policies and institutional arrangements. Such analysis is commonly based on a livelihood framework which categorises assets in terms of five main types of capital:

1.1 UNDERSTANDING LIVELIHOODS SCOPES

Livelihood strategies

Livelihood strategy is how people access and use these assets, within the aforementioned social, economic, political and environmental contexts. The range and diversity of livelihood strategies are enormous. An individual may take on several activities to meet his/her needs. One or many individuals may engage in activities that contribute to a collective livelihood strategy. Within households, individuals often take on different responsibilities to enable the sustenance and growth of the family. In some cultures, this grouping may expand to a small community, in which individuals work together to meet the needs of the entire group.

Livelihood vulnerability

The strength of a given livelihood is not only measured by its productive outcomes, but equally by its resilience to shocks, seasonal changes and trends. Shocks might include natural disasters, wars and economic downturns. Availability of resources, income-generating opportunities and demand for certain products and services may fluctuate seasonally. More gradual and often predictable, trends in politics and governance, technology use, economics and availability of natural resources can pose serious obstacles to the future of many livelihoods. These changes impact the availability of assets and the opportunities to transform those assets into a “living”. Under such conditions, people must adapt existing strategies or develop new strategies in order to survive.

Livelihood interdependence

One final important characteristic of livelihoods is their interdependence. Very few livelihoods exist in isolation. A given livelihood may rely on other livelihoods to access and exchange assets. Traders rely on farmers to produce goods, processors to prepare them and consumers to buy them. Livelihoods also compete with each other for access to assets and markets. Thus, positive and negative impacts on any given livelihood will, in turn, impact others. This is a particularly important consideration when planning livelihood assistance.

Livelihood mapping

The livelihood mapping divides the country into areas where the rural population shares relatively homogeneous living conditions. The livelihood zone areas describe the agroecological and the socio-economic characteristics of the rural population, including the main livelihoods, the natural resources available, the potential constraints and priorities for development. The livelihood map is used to identify priority areas for investment according to the demand of the population. Livelihood mapping is therefore about gaining an accurate geographic and realistic cultural understanding of people’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (assets or capital endowments) and how they endeavour to convert these into positive livelihood outcomes. It mainly considers the main livelihood zones, farm typology, potential beneficiaries and threats to such livelihoods and the possible viable sustainable livelihoods that can be adopted.

There is no one-size-fits-all approach to livelihoods. Interventions must be adapted to the local context. Different factors fundamentally change the way livelihood interventions should be designed. This Manual provides a framework for assessment to help trainers determine the right combination of interventions to arrive at a holistic approach that is well adapted to the local context.

Emergency calamity cycle management

In the case of slow onset emergencies such as drought or desert Locust infestation, livelihood analysis highlights the need to protect assets and support the services and systems which in the long-term, are required for recovery and development. Increasingly, it is becoming questionable whether drought or desert locust infestations which are becoming cyclic and predictable may not really be a shock, but more a regular and predictable event which occurs seasonally.

In terms of the practicalities of designing Crop and livestock interventions, these can be categorised according to their relevance at a particular stage of a typical calamity cycle. Some interventions such as water supply and veterinary care are always needed, whereas other interventions are appropriate only at certain times. For example, support to commercial destocking should occur during the alarm/alert phases whereas restocking should take place during the recovery phase.

• Emergency food Supply
• Cash Transfer Programmes
• Input Supplies (Seeds, fertilisers, pesticides etc)
• Commercial destocking
• Feed supplementation
• Water supply
• Veterinary care
• Ongoing drought monitoring

SECTION TWO: INTERVENTIONS FOR LIVELIHOOD RESTORATION AND REHABILITATION

The objective of rehabilitation and protection should be to help the poor and vulnerable in emergency affected areas. The aim is to safeguard them from human capital and asset loss, enhance their access to food, and rehabilitate food production systems and livelihoods damaged or destroyed by the calamity. Activities should target poor and vulnerable households at risk of food insecurity and/or who have lost their income as a result of the locust upsurge or who have experienced damage to their livelihood assets. An added element that would be provided for livestock keepers is fodder provision to sustain livestock where grazing has been lost due to the impact of harsh climate. The interventions should promote the adoption of climate-smart crop and livestock practices for reduced GHG, enhanced resilience, and the implementation of livelihood support and diversification initiatives. Support should be provided for agroecosystem management approaches that enhance resilience of farm and landscape to changes. This should be achieved through delivering (i) climate-smart farmer packages to get food and fodder production re-started as soon as possible; (ii) pasture restoration or temporary forage/feed provision and climate-resilient grazing management in pastoralist areas negatively impacted (iii) in certain cases assisting with animal destocking and re-stocking with climate-resilient and stress tolerant breeds to mitigate the negative effects of the calamity.
This section covers five modules namely: climate change and climate variability; Natural resource management; crop production and management; livestock production and management, and range management

2.1 MODULE 1

CLIMATE CHANGE AND VARIABILITY

Climate change (CC) and climate variability (CV) are real and are an impediment to sustainable development globally. Climate change causes a range of positive and negative impacts in agriculture depending on the regions of the world. The negative impacts are expected to be more adverse in developing countries, particularly those in sub-Saharan Africa such as Kenya which has been experiencing increasing temperatures from the 1960s coupled with increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as El Niño and La Niña. Effects of the negative impacts include declining agricultural productivity; land degradation; loss of crops, livestock and fish due to changing temperatures and precipitation regimes and increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events. The current status of climate change shows that the rise in global temperatures since the industrial revolution has been 0.75 °C. The ten warmest years in the 134-year record have all occurred since 2000. Atmospheric concentrations of CO₂ have increased from 280 ppm in 1850 to 401.58 ppm.

This module discusses the following aspects:

• Weather
• Climate
• Climate Change
• Climate Variability
• Greenhouse effect
• Adaptation
• Adaptive capacity
• Carbon sink
• Resilience
• Climate information services
• Impacts of climate change and climate variability
• Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA)
• Conservation Agriculture (CA)
• Gender in Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) and Conservation Agriculture (CA)

Weather

Weather is the summary of temperature, rainfall, wind, humidity, sunshine, cloudiness or storms patterns in a specific place on a specific day or over a short period such as a season. They also include extreme events such as tornadoes, droughts and tropical cyclones. Thus, weather are what we see/hear/feel every day in a given location, which is the state of the atmospheric conditions at a particular place and time. Weather is dynamic and can change within a very short time, even within the same day.

Climate

Climate refers to average weather conditions (taken over a period not less than 30 years), including statistical description of its variations. Several factors contribute to the definition of climate, including long-term averages of temperature and precipitation, but also the type, frequency, duration, and intensity of weather events such as heat waves, cold spells, storms, floods and droughts. Climate is a complex natural process that involves the interaction of the air, the water, and the land surface. The earth’s climate is in a state of continuous change, and has changed many times in response to various natural and human causes. The movement of air through the atmosphere and that of water through the ocean also affect temperature and rainfall.

Climate change

Climate change (CC) refers to a broad range of alterations in climatic and weather conditions (Figure 2.1). It is characterised by changes in average conditions and in the frequency and severity of extreme conditions that have occurred over a long time, generally over 30-35 years. Climate change is the change in the long-term meteorological average itself, whatever the cause. The reality of CC is indisputable as it is seen or felt across the globe. It negatively impacts on core fabrics of human livelihood systems i.e. crops, livestock, water, soil and biodiversity.

Figure 2.1. Climate change: Focuses on trend and mean changes

Climate Variability

This refers to year-to-year fluctuations including seasonal variations in the climate parameters. The causes of climate variability (CV) are directly or indirectly by both natural processes and human activities. These processes can increase accumulation of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere. Climate Change and CV arise from the changes in the elements of the atmosphere. Several indicators of CC/CV are manifesting up to farm level. Temperatures have increased, rainfall decreased & depressed, increased pests and diseases affecting both livestock and crops that are the main livelihoods of the poor.

Greenhouse gases

Greenhouse gases occur naturally in the atmosphere. These gases have longer wavelengths than visible light, which allows the gases to absorb and emit radiation. GHGs cause increased temperature on earth. Human activities that increase GHGs include; industrialization, deforestation, transport and energy production. The most common greenhouse gases are:

• Carbon dioxide (CO₂)
• Methane (CH₄)
• Nitrous Oxide (N₂O)
• Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
• Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
• Sulphur hexafluoride (SF₆)

Greenhouse gases effect

Greenhouses gases have chemical characteristics that allow these gases to capture, absorb and store heat energy for a long time (Figure 2.2). The greenhouse effect is therefore the process by which greenhouse gases absorb, reflected long wave radiation (background radiation), and raise atmospheric temperature

2.1.1 SUB-MODULE 1: CLIMATE INFORMATION SERVICES

Climate Information is the data or knowledge about past, present and future climate conditions. Its interest is in understanding the implications of this information on development, people’s livelihoods and the environment. It provides information relevant for designing and mainstreaming adaptation measures. It facilitates for short, mid or long-term adaptation planning. It also helps in facilitating early warning systems on climate issues.

They are in the scales of:
• Global
  Regional climates
• Microclimate (local scales)
• Small-scale climates are referred to as microclimates

Met Station Satellite Instrument Models

• Weather stations (KMS, WMO, NOAA….)
• Satellite data (Instruments such as RADAR, Infrared…..)
• Reanalysis data – Use of climate models (NCEP, NCEP2, ERA Interim……)
• The data are processed and interpreted for decision making activities such as adaptation planning
  
  

• Understanding climate information is critical for decision making – planning.
• Climate information can be confusing and sometimes creates conflicts.
• Impacts of climate change (and related adaptation measures) can be obtained from climate information (i.e. scenarios of the future climate).
• Climate Change and CV places significant stress to food production and availability.
• Growing demand for food and energy places additional pressure on the food systems and the natural resources.
• Building resilience to climatic shocks requires clear climate information.
• Decision-making use information for short, medium, and long-term adaptation measures.
• Therefore, there is need to improve the availability, quality and use of climate information.
• There is a growing demand by stakeholders for better climate information.

• Communication channels between producers and users - accessible, effective, timely and bidirectional.
• Communication language, style and channel - consider social roles, inequalities, levels of literacy, numeracy, and fluency in a given language.
• Packaging of climate information -tailored to specific users ‘capacities and needs.
• Style and visual packaging - contribute to understanding, even by those who are not literate.
• Communications systems – take note of the systems that already exist at local level.
• Information access and use - determine gender access and use rights of information in the specific communities

Contribution of climate services to Climate Smart Agriculture comprises of productivity, adaptation and mitigation;

Productivity

• Adequate and timely info - increase productivity.
• It is a basis for planning.
• It supports decision-making; options to invest in, when and how much.

• Enables farmers to manage the negative impacts of weather-related risks in poor seasons better, while also taking greater advantage of average and better than average seasons.
• Flexibility to switch from one strategy to another or to combine strategies - adjust their plans as climate stressors and shocks unfold.
  

Mitigation
• Information supports efficient use of fertilizers - reducing emissions of GHGs.
• There is increased demand and sources for Climate information globally.
  



Climate Information Platform

• Complete crop failure from delayed rains or limited rains or rainfall failure
• Reduction of crop and livestock yield.
• Decreasing availability of water for crop production, drinking, livestock use and drying of water sources.
• Increasing frequency of droughts leading to crop failures, loss of pastures, loss of livestock and livestock feed supplies.
• Occurrence of frost and abrupt cold temperatures affects crop in various counties.
• Loss of property and sources of livelihood from extreme weather events such as flash flood, windstorm,hailstorms and landslides.
• Insurgence of new pest and diseases in crops such as the Rice Blast Disease, Grey Leaf Spot of Maize and Fall Armyworm and prevalence livestock diseases and parasites.
• Loss of seeds and planting materials for next season planting.
• Land degradation and loss of soil fertility due to erosion of topsoil and runoff sparked by incessant rainfall.
• Damages to key infrastructures like bridges disconnect people from far flung remote areas making them highly vulnerable to food insecurity.
• Overall degradation of natural resources.
• Loss of agrobiodiversity and disruption of traditional seed systems.

• Increased crop failures and livestock deaths will lead to decreased domestic food production resulting in the increased imports of food.
• Increase in prices of essential commodities will drive poor farmers to further poverty.
• Increased incidence of pest and diseases on humans and animals affect their health.
• Increased drudgery and workload on rural women due to declining access and degradation of natural resources.
• Disruption of the local seed system puts pressure on women who take the lead role in seed saving, seed selection and conservation of crop and varieties.
• Increased rural- urban migration and fallowing of agricultural land.
• Crop failures causes increased workload on women who are the caregivers and responsible for feeding the family.
• Reduced agricultural productivity implies lost economic opportunities at the household level and nationally.

2.1.2 SUB-MODULE 2: CLIMATE SMART AND CONSERVATION AGRICULTURE AS A RESPONSE TO CLIMATE CHANGE AND CLIMATE VIABILITY

Climate Smart Agriculture

This is defined as an approach for changing and shaping agricultural development differently under the new realities of climate change. Agriculture that increases productivity, enhances resilience (adaptation), reduces/ removes GHGs (mitigation), and achieves national food security and development goals in a sustainable way. This definition identifies the main goal of CSA as food security and development; while productivity, adaptation, and mitigation are identified as the other three interlinked pillars necessary for achieving this goal.

• The demand for food is increasing and thus more food has to be produced with the same amount of resources such as the land, water and capital.
• There is an overall reduction and degradation of natural resources that sustains agriculture production.
• Subsistence farming is highly vulnerable to the impacts of Climate Change and there is an immediate need to adopt a more sustainable approach for adaptation to Climate Change.
• There is need for enhancing food security while lowering effects of Climate Change and reducing destruction of the natural resource base.
• With the dangers brought about by Climate Change the agricultural production systems have to be more productive, efficient, predictable, stable in their outputs and more resilient to risks, shocks and long-term climate variability.
• Awareness and understanding of the farming communities on the potential impacts of Climate Change on agriculture is low and must be quickly increased to build their capacity for adaptation.

• It chooses multiple technologies, innovation and management practices that work at the farm level to give the desirable level of production.
• It deals with climate change through taking note of its impacts in planning and developing agricultural systems for adoption.
• It adopts the environmental conservation that is supportive of agricultural production.
• It incorporates multiple goals i.e. increase in productivity, higher resilience and lower GHG emissions into planning.
• It takes into account impacts of climate change on gender and engages different stakeholders to identify the most appropriate interventions.
• It being context specific, it employs different interventions for different landscapes. In doing so, it handles each landscape in a unique way.

Conservation Agriculture

The CA is a method of farming that conserves, improves and uses natural resources more efficiently through sustainable intensification (integration) of locally available resources. The system contributes to environmental conservation as well as to enhancement of and sustained agricultural production. It can also be referred to as resource efficient agriculture. Conventional agriculture involves intensive tillage and has been claimed to cause soil degradation, particularly when practised in areas of marginal productivity. The goal of CA is therefore to maintain and improve yields and resilience against crop water stress while stimulating biological functioning of the soil environment. CA operatives on three principles or pillars namely: Minimum soil disturbance; Permanent soil cover and crop diversification/crop rotation and intercropping.

Minimum soil disturbance

The farmer tills the soil as little as possible or disturbs the soils as little as possible. The soil should only be dug where the seed, fertiliser and manure are to be placed

Minimum soil disturbance

Crop diversification

It is a farming system that allows growing several crops. This is done through embracing crop rotation or intercropping systems. It encompasses both crop rotation and intercropping. Crop rotation is the systematic planting of different crops in a particular order over several seasons/years in the same farm unit. The process helps maintain nutrients in the soil, reduce soil erosion, and prevents plant diseases and pests. Intercropping is a system where two or more (multiple) crops are grown (companion planting) in the same farm unit in the same season/year making use of resources or ecological processes that would otherwise not be utilised by a single crop. The practice is most common in areas where land for cultivation is limited due to high population.

• Time savings: Time savings allow farmers to plant earlier, perhaps by weeks.
• Pest and disease control: Crop rotation helps break crop disease cycles.
• Reduces crop failure risks: Diversified crops offers expanded crop sales and lowers risk of no harvest.
• Improved soil water management. Improved water infiltration and reduced water loss by evaporation and runoff. This improves yield even with small amounts of moisture. Refraining from ploughing can reduce evaporation loss by the equivalent of 20-30 mm, or between a fifth and a third.
• Reduction in labour use. In the case of animal traction, the reduction in labour when applying conservation agriculture can be as high as 86%. Time required to prepare the land using a tractor is reduced by 58% under conservation agriculture.
• Reduction in the cost of production. Overall, with equal or slightly higher yields and reduced costs, the farm income increases under conservation agriculture. Production systems that use manual labour or animal traction physical exercise of the farmer are also reduced considerably. Besides a reduction in time required for field activities, the costs for operation and maintenance are also reduced. Ploughing activities are eliminated, farmers do not need heavy machinery or tractors, resulting in lower investment or write-off costs.
• Generally, the costs for inputs are a bit higher in conservation agriculture compared to conventional tillage, due to cover crop seeds and agrochemicals.
  

• Soil health. A core benefit is that soil that is little disturbed develops better soil structure. Good soil structure absorbs and retains water for crops more effectively. Nutrients from crop residues enables better nutrient cycling. Crop residues physically protect soil to reduce the wind and water erosion that inevitably diminishes soils left bare by ploughing. Conservation agriculture can reduce soil erosion by up to 96%. Biological activity continues uninterrupted in largely undisturbed soil, and nutrient-rich organic matter is left to accumulate there. All these factors contribute to long-term increases in yield and productivity.
• Reduced greenhouse gas emissions and water use. Soil with higher organic matter content sequesters more carbon than does depleted soil. Reduced need for mineral fertilisers also reduces emissions.
• Cleaner surface water. Improved water infiltration into healthy soil and reduced water erosion of bare ploughing soils keeps water, soil and agricultural inputs such as fertiliser, herbicides and pesticides in the field where they are needed and desired.
• Reduced loss of genetic biodiversity. The rotation of crops and cover crops restrains the loss of genetic biodiversity, which is a consequence of mono cropping.

Agronomic benefits

The constant addition of crop residues leads to an increase of the organic matter content of the soil. Organic matter improves fertiliser use efficiency, water holding capacity, soil tilth, rooting environment and nutrient retention. The increased organic matter content together with soil cover leads to increased water holding capacity of the soil.

• Systematic gender analysis to identify any differences in men’s, women’s and youth’s productivity.
• Resolving the challenges or constraints that women and youths experience in accessing, using, and supervising farm labour.
• Improving women’s and youth’s access to productive inputs and resources such as extension services; technologies, innovations and management practices.
• Improving women’s and youth’s use of agricultural inputs like seeds and fertilisers.
• Improving women’s and youth’s tenure of natural resources e.g. land.
• Participatory identification and implementation of income-generating opportunities.

2.2 MODULE 2
NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Natural resources management (NRM) refers to the management of resources such as land, trees, water, and air to ensure their continued availability for current and future generations. Natural resource management involves interactions between people and natural landscapes with their associated ecologies.

Integrated natural resource management and Community-based natural resource management technologies will be used for restoring and rehabilitation of agricultural landscapes as well as for improving livelihoods. Integrated Natural Resources Management (INRM) is an approach that integrates research of different types of natural resources into stakeholder-driven processes of adaptive management and innovations to improve livelihoods, agro- ecosystem resilience, agricultural productivity and environmental services at community, eco-regional and global scales of intervention and impact. INRM has emerged as a necessary approach to solve problems of agricultural communities.

Community-based NRM refers to the process of involving local communities in the management of these resources with the objective of both conserving the environment but also ensuring socio-economic development of local communities.

This training manual seeks to equip trainers, working in a rural context with information and skills to carry out activities related to INRM for the benefits of the targeted community. These activities range from raising awareness about natural resource depletion, facilitating discussions surrounding equitable use of natural resources, to approaching government and other agencies to ensure that local communities benefit from resources use in their areas. The training will cover the following sub-modules:

• Land degradation and sustainable agriculture
• Integrated soil fertility and water management
• Soil and water management
• Problematic soils and their management
• Irrigation and drainage
• Agroforestry systems

2.2.1 SUB-MODULE 1: LAND DEGRADATION AND SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
Introduction

Figure 2.3. Soil degradation

Degraded land is defined as land characterized by persistent decline or loss in biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services that cannot fully recover unaided within decadal time scales. Restoring degraded land can include many different types of practices that ultimately restore ecosystem functions. Some examples include implementing soil and water conservation practices, planting the right tree in the right place, increasing above and below ground biodiversity, conservation of natural vegetation, among many others. The Global Land Outlook highlights that land restoration has multiple benefits, including “reversing past land and ecosystem degradation while creating opportunities that improve livelihoods and prepare us for future challenges. Degradation of semi-natural and natural lands has received heightened attention as a global policy problem. Recent advances in supporting farmer innovation to restore land have been illustrated in a five-step guide for applying the options by context approach to land restoration at the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF).
Figure 2.3. Soil degradation

Soil Degradation and Sustainable Agriculture
Soil degradation is the temporary or permanent lowering of the productive capacity of soil due to overgrazing, deforestation, inappropriate agricultural practices, over exploitation of fuel wood leading to desertification and other man-induced activities. All processes of soil degradation are grouped into six classes:

Water erosion Wind erosion Soil fertility decline Salinization
Waterlogging
Gulley Erosion	Waterlogging
Lowering of the water table.
Soil moisture stress	Bare soil/loss of biodiversity

2.2.2 SUB-MODULE 2: INTEGRATED SOIL FERTILITY AND WATER MANAGEMENT
Soil management is the application of operations and practices that enhance soil health and performance. These practices may be broadly classified as soil fertility management by application of fertilisers, adoption of practices that enhance maximum soil moisture retention and minimum plant nutrient losses or losses of soil biodiversity.
Sustainable soil management is fundamental to effective soil function, particularly in intensive production systems where optimal plant growth is required to deliver maximum crop yield and quality. In intensive cropping systems, when sustainable soil management is not practised, soil structural degradation in all forms is widespread and pervasive

Stakeholders in a maize variety and soil fertility demonstration trial at KALRO-Kakamega

Soil Fertility management
Soil Fertility Management (SFM) strategies centre on the combined use of mineral fertilisers, locally available soil amendments and organic matter to replenish lost soil nutrients. They include Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) which involves a set of agricultural practices and germplasm adapted to local conditions to maximise the efficiency of nutrient and water use and improve agricultural productivity. ISFM is defined as ‘A set of soil fertility management practices that necessarily include the use of fertilizer, organic inputs, and improved germplasm combined with the knowledge on how to adapt these practices to local conditions, aiming at maximizing agronomic use efficiency of the applied nutrients and improving crop productivity. ISFM strategies are anchored on the combined use of mineral fertilisers and locally available soil amendments (such as lime and phosphate rock) and organic matter (crop residues, compost, and green manure) to replace lost soil nutrients. This improves both soil quality and the efficiency of fertilizers and other agro inputs. ISFM also promotes improved germplasm, agroforestry, and the use of crop rotation and/or intercropping with legumes (a crop which also improves soil fertility).

Integrated soil fertility management demonstration trials at KALRO-Kabete

Fertilisers
A fertilizer is any material (organic or inorganic) of natural or synthetic origin that is applied to soils or to plant tissues to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants. However, liming materials are not considered as fertilizers. Many sources of fertilizer exist, both natural and industrially produced. Fertilizers enhance the growth of plants. Fertilisers supplement plants with the vital nutrients needed for optimal, healthy growth. There exist two major categories of fertilisers: organic and inorganic. Organic fertilisers are derived from naturally occurring substances, such as plant or animal by-products and mineral rock, but inorganic fertilisers are synthetically manufactured. Organic fertilisers undergo little processing and include ingredients such as composts and manure, while inorganic fertilisers are synthetic and typically made from petroleum.

Organic fertilisers
The cementing agent that binds the soil particles together is the organic matter, which is found in organic fertilisers. It is both of animal and plant origin. Besides adding necessary nutrients to soil, organic fertilisers boost soil fertility status by improving all soil physical, chemical, and biological properties which most plants rely on for healthy growth and development. They play the following roles in the soils:

• Improves soil temperature regulation
• Improves soil aeration and reduces soil compaction.
• Improve infiltration rate
• Improves soil organisms’ population
• Improves soil water and nutrient holding capacity.

Practices that increase organic matter in the soils include crop rotations that contains high plant residues, leaving crop residues in the field, growing cover crops, use of low or no tillage systems, mulching, growing perennial forage crops, using optimum nutrient and water management strategies for healthy plant production with large number of residues and roots, growing cover crops and application of compost or manure.

Apart from in- situ organic matter accumulation, there exists a wide range of locally available organic amendments. They include farmyard manure, green manure, compost manure, sewage/sludge, and marine by-products

Farmyard manure
Farmyard manure is made from livestock such as cattle, chickens, horses and sheep waste and their beddings. The amount of nutrient that manure provides and its subsequent availability to plants is influenced by a several factors:

• Nutrient content of the animal feed
• Storage and handling procedures of the manure
• Amount and type of materials added to the manure
• Timing and method of application
• Properties of the soil
• Choice of crop

Legume /green manure
Green manure is made from crops that are generally grown for less than a growing season and are ploughed and incorporated in the soil before producing seeds. Examples of common green manure crops are annual ryegrass, Sudan grass, tithonia and sesbania. Legumes are particularly beneficial since they are nitrogen fixing species and are a good source of nitrogen. A particular advantage of implementing a legume/green manure rotation into the soil/cropping system is the added source of organic matter. Green manures also improve soil structure by reducing bulk density.

Sewage sludge
Sewage sludge consists of the solid products formed during sewage treatment. It is not uniform in mineral composition but generally, it contains between 1 to 3% total nitrogen

Compost
Composting is the controlled biological and chemical decomposition and conversion of animal and plant wastes with the aim of producing humus. Humus is the dark organic material in soils, produced by the decomposition of vegetable or animal matter and is essential to the fertility of the soil.
Compost functions as a form of organic fertiliser made from leaves, weeds, manure, household waste and other organic materials, thus it can reduce the cost of fertiliser from other sources.

• Proper compost management leads to an increased proportion of humid substances in the soil due to high micro-organic activity, and therefore applying compost leads to quantitative and qualitative improvements of the humus content of the soil, which leads to an increase in crop yields.
• Composting helps to improve soil fertility which is helpful in reducing the impacts of climate change.
• Composting helps increase soil moisture and soil cover, as well as reduce soil loss.
• Compost is made from decomposed plant only on animal matter increased soil carbon such as vegetable peels, eggshells, coffee grounds and other organic scraps. Regardless of the source, compost provides soil with a well-balanced mix of nutrients, including nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.

Manure
Manure management activities involve the handling of animal dung and urine (farmyard manure) predominantly in the solid form when applying it to croplands.
Applications of manure in the croplands enable achieving and maintaining a fertile soil, which can increase crop yields.
The application of manure can improve productivity and produce greater crop yield which is important for adapting to climate change.
Manure comes from livestock such as cattle, chickens, horses and sheep, although bat and bird guano are also effective organic fertilisers. Like compost, manure also does double duty by adding essential nutrients to the soil as well as improving soil quality and its water-retention ability. Because manure can cause food-borne illness, use either composted manures or apply fresh manure well in advance.

Marine by-products
Fish emulsion, fish scrap and seaweed extracts are important sources of soil nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Fish emulsion, which is derived from partially decomposed ground fish, is an organic fertiliser that provides high levels of nitrogen to soil. Fish scrap is another marine byproduct and organic fertiliser that contains both nitrogen and phosphorus. Seaweed extracts provide nitrogen and potassium as well as trace elements to soil and have a less intense odour than the fish derivatives.

Meals
Meal supplements are agricultural byproducts from the meat and farming industries. Common examples of meals used as organic fertilisers include blood meal, which provides high levels of nitrogen and iron; bone meal, which is rich in both nitrogen and particularly phosphorus; and cottonseed meal, which contains all three macronutrients – nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.

Rock minerals
Although mined rock minerals differ from other organic fertilisers in that they are not derived from a previously living organism, they are still considered organic fertilisers because they have not undergone extensive processing and provide soil with nutrients vital to healthy plant growth and development. Common examples of mined rock mineral fertilisers include rock phosphate, greensand, and sulphate of potash magnesia.

Mulch
Mulching is the process of covering the soil surface with organic matter to create conditions that are more favourable for plant growth (i.e., creating an optimal climate independent of weather conditions), improving the decomposition and mineralization of organic material in the soil (i.e., surface composting), and protecting the soil from erosion.
Mulching can improve the productivity of the land (i.e., crop yields) by making conditions more favourable for plant growth, i.e., conserving soil moisture, improving soil fertility and reducing soil erosion.
This can be derived from organic or inorganic materials. Organic mulch improves soil fertility through decomposition of the materials. Examples of organic mulches include grass clippings, shredded leaves and old hay. Annual applications of mulch, along with compost, improve soil’s ability to absorb nitrogen and other nutrients. Inorganic mulch contributes to soil fertility management through soil moisture retention and regulation of soil environment making it suitable for micro-organism action.

Improved fallow
The planting of fast-growing species of leguminous trees or crops into a short-term fallow for one or more years to improve soil fertility.
Improved fallows help restore fertility to land whose nutrients are depleted. Plant species like grasses or legumes that fix nitrogen grow during the fallow period. As the nitrogen fixing plants grow, excess nitrogen is released back into the soil. Nitrogen is a vital nutrient for plants and plant growth. Planting nitrogen fixing plants is very important for rebuilding soil fertility and improving crop yields.

• Improved fallows can help restore degraded land which can be important for adapting to climate change.
• They also can help to protect the soil from excessive heat, exposure to wind, and moisture loss.
• Improved fallows require less fertiliser and therefore have fewer greenhouse gas emissions.
• The leaves of the leguminous plants can be incorporated into the soil, increasing the carbon in the soil.

Plant leguminous shrubs, such as Sesbania, Tephrosia, Crotalaria and Cajanus, in fallow lands. These plants are better than natural fallows for enhancing soil fertility, especially for restoring nitrogen and improving other soil properties, and they ease the work of tilling the soil.

Inorganic Fertilisers
Inorganic fertilisers come in single-nutrient or multi-nutrient formulas. Multi-nutrient formulas include compound and single fertilisers, which contain basic nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, as well as secondary and micronutrients such as calcium, magnesium, boron and manganese. The percentage of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium contained in both complete and balanced fertilisers is indicated by three numbers on the package. For example, a 5-10-5 formula is a compound fertiliser, containing 5 percent nitrogen, 10 percent phosphorus and 5 percent potassium. Balanced fertilisers are those that contain equal nutrient amounts, such as a 10-10-10 formula.

Inorganic fertilisers include slow-release formulas. These formulas contain larger molecules that are coated, helping them to break down slowly in the soil. A typical slow-release fertiliser releases nutrients over a period of 50 days to a year, reducing the chance of burning the plant or root system. Specially formulated inorganic fertilisers are those that are created for a specific type of plant. Specially formulated fertilisers are usually highly acidic and should be used only on the plants for which they are indicated.

Nitrogen Fertilisers
Inorganic nitrogen fertilisers come in many different forms, such as ammonium nitrate, potassium nitrate, calcium nitrate and urea. These fertilisers contain high levels of nitrogen, one of the most vital nutrients for plant growth. However, these inorganic fertilisers tend to increase the pH of the soil upon application, increasing the chances of burn and damage to seedlings. Others pull moisture from the air, making them difficult to apply and store.

Phosphorus Fertilisers
Inorganic phosphorus fertilisers such as Superphosphates (single superphosphate, triple superphosphate) are forms of phosphorus fertiliser. These do not affect the pH of the soil upon application, while ammonium phosphates (Di- ammonium phosphate (DAP) and Mono ammonium phosphate (MAP)) come in water-soluble, granular forms.

Potassium Fertilisers
Inorganic potassium fertilisers include potassium sulphate and potassium nitrate, as well as muriate of potash, also known as potassium chloride. Muriate of potash is the most commonly used potassium fertiliser. In some cases, plants may be sensitive to chloride. If a plant is sensitive to chloride, potassium sulphate, also known as sulphate of potash, is a better choice, as it does not contain chloride. Potassium nitrate is easy to apply, because it does not pull moisture from the air, but it does slightly increase the pH of the soil upon application.

Fertiliser Application Methods
The method of applying fertilisers depends on the nature of crops, their nutrient needs, and the soil.

Broadcast
Fertiliser is spread on the soil surface. It precedes tillage so that the fertiliser can be mixed with the soil this results in uniform fertiliser applications. Both fluid and pellet fertiliser may be broadcast. This provides the most uniform distribution of nutrients within a given soil volume. This method is suited particularly well to high rates of applied fertiliser. It is inefficient and may be wasteful.
Broadcasting of fertilisers is carried out at time of planting and during crop growth.
At time of planting depending on the crop, broadcasting of the fertiliser is carried out prior to sowing/planting or just before the last ploughing and incorporated in the field. Broadcasting of fertilisers at the time of planting is generally done under conditions:

• When the soils are highly deficient in nitrogen and
• When the previous crop has been exhaustive such as sugarcane, maize, etc.

During crop growth period, broadcasting in standing crop is done mainly for nitrogenous fertilisers and mostly for close spaced crops like paddy rice and wheat. It is called top dressing. Muriate of potash is also applied as top dressing in some crops, but this is not a general practice.

Banding
Fertiliser is placed in a continuous band at the bottom of the furrow opened during ploughing. Each band is covered with soil after the application. In single band placement fertiliser is applied on one side of the planted row. Band applications of fertiliser concentrate nutrients within a specific soil volume. The goal of band applications is to limit the contact of the applied fertiliser with the soil. This application method is desirable when fertiliser reacts with soil to produce compounds that reduce its availability to the crop. It is an efficient way of supplying plants with nutrients.

Drill Application
Drill application refers to the drilling of fertiliser at sowing time. Drilling the fertiliser together with seed should be avoided as it may adversely affect the germination, or the young plants may get damaged due to high or concentration of chemicals in the root zone. It is advisable to use a separate attachment for seed and fertiliser drilling. This is one of the best methods for applying phosphatic (P) and potassium (K) fertilisers to closely spaced row planted crops like wheat, maize, etc. This method is also better for applying nitrogenous fertilisers. However, it is safer to drill only small quantities of fertilisers so that germination may not be adversely affected.

Foliar Application
Foliar application refers to the spraying of fertilizer solution on foliage (leaves) of growing plants. Normally, these solutions are prepared in low concentration (2-3%) either to supply anyone plant nutrients or a combination of nutrients. It is the most suitable form of topdressing when there is inadequate soil moisture.

Starter Solutions
The use of liquid fertilisers as a means of fertilisation has assumed considerable importance in foreign countries. Solutions of fertilisers, generally consisting of N, P2O5, and K2O in the ratio of 1: 2: 1 and 1:1:2 are applied to young vegetable plants at the time of transplanting.
These solutions are known as ‘Starter Solutions’. They are used in place of the watering that is usually given to help the plants to establish. Only a small amount of fertiliser is applied as a starter solution.

IrrigationWater/Fertigation
Fertilisers are allowed to dissolve in the irrigation stream. The nutrients are thus carried into the soil in solution. This saves the application cost and allows the utilisation of relatively inexpensive water.

Fertigation
Fertigation is the technique of supplying dissolved fertilisers to crops through an irrigation system. Intensification of agriculture by irrigation and enhanced use of fertilisers may generate pollution by increased levels of nutrients in underground and surface waters. Therefore, judicious management of plant nutrients available through different fertilisers need to be catered. A higher efficiency is possible with the help of a pressurised irrigation system that is placed around the plant roots uniformly and allows for rapid uptake of nutrients by plants. Small application of soluble nutrients saves labour, reduces compaction in the field and thereby enhances productivity.

Inorganic Fertilisers vs. Organic Fertiliser
Both organic and inorganic fertilisers provide plants with the nutrients needed to grow healthy and strong (Table 2.1). However, each contains different ingredients and supplies these nutrients in different ways. Organic fertilisers work overtime to create a healthy growing environment, while inorganic fertilisers provide rapid nutrition. Determining which is better for crops depends largely on the needs of the crops and preferences of the farmer in terms of cost and environmental impact. Organic fertilisers are environmentally friendly. Overuse of inorganic fertilisers cause pollution of groundwater, stripping of soil nutrients, and plant and root burn if utilised improperly. The continual use of inorganic fertilisers reduces the soil’s resistance to pests and diseases killing off the natural microbial activity.

Assessment of soil health: tools for assessment
Soil health assessment involves processes where many potential indicators are evaluated for their use in standardised, rapid, quantitative assessment of soil health based on relevance to key soil processes, response to management, and complexity of measurement.

Soil assessment or testing starts with the correct procedure of taking soil samples using appropriate tools. Soil sampling is a systematic collection of soil samples in a farm for analysis.

Soil analysis is the chemical, physical or microbial technique that estimates the availability of nutrients, particles, and organisms in the soil for plant growth. Soil contamination and presence of toxic elements is also done through soil analysis. The basic soil test involves the determination of components that are of significance to crop growth such as pH, phosphorus, calcium, potassium, magnesium, sodium, cation exchange capacity, base saturation, and bulk density.
The test methods used in nutrient determination in soils and plant tissue correlate the relationships between the quantity and mineral form of the essential elements present in the soil and plant. This enables the land user to know what is needed to ensure the condition of the soil is suitable for the crop to reach its genetic yield potential. The soil and plant tissue tests are the most reliable method for identifying and confirming the nutrient deficiencies.

Soil sampling at KALRO-Kabete

Steps of Soil Sampling

• Remove debris from the ground surface at the point where the sampling is to be done.
• Use an auger to dig a small hole about 20cm deep (topsoil sample).
• Place into a clean container.
• Optional - At each of the 10 sub-sample locations, collect soil hardness information with a penetrometer.
• Record maximum hardness (in psi) from the 0-6” and at the 6-18” depth ranges on the Submission Form.
• Repeat the steps as above A-D to collect the remainder of the sub-samples. Mix thoroughly and transfer 3-6 cups of soil into a clearly labelled re-closable freezer bag. The amount of soil required depends on the analysis package selected.

Importance of Soil Sampling and Testing

• To establish baseline soil nutrient status.
• To measure changes in soil nutrient status over time.
• To assess the overall nutrient status of different soil types essential for crop growth and development.
• To predict nutrient deficiencies in current or succeeding crops.
• Establish fertiliser application recommendations (types and rates). This helps to avoid excessive nutrient application or accumulation of soluble salts.
• To assess nutrients removed in crop residues.
• To monitor the soil pH (acidity and alkalinity) and organic matter content.
• For soil biological characterization.
• For soil physical characteristic evaluation (soil physical characteristics are crucial determinants of the plant rooting pattern).

What to Consider When Undertaking Soil Sampling
When carrying out soil sampling, it is important to ensure that the samples are representative of the whole farm, portion of the farm or the locality being mapped out. It is important to always take separate soil samples where farm features differ because they have an effect on soil fertility. Features associated with soil fertility variability in the farm include:

• Topography (slope length or gradient, rocky outcrops).
• Soil types (texture, colour).
• Land degradation intensities (erosion sites, vegetation cover and type).
• Land-use history (past land use, cropping systems and fertility inputs applied)
• Current land use, - including farm structures, trees/crop(s) grown and soil conservation measures in place
• Distance from the roads (paths), homestead and livestock facilities.

2.2.3 SUB-MODULE 3: SOIL AND WATER MANAGEMENT
Conservation of soil and water resources is important for the sustainability of agriculture and the environment. The concept of soil conservation cannot be materialized without conserving and efficient use of water resources. Soil and water conservation can be carried out through tillage management or in-situ water harvesting.
This section consists of:

• Tillage management
• In-situ water harvesting
• Rainwater harvesting for Storage (Ex-situ water harvesting)
• Soil and water conservation measures
• Future perspectives for soil and water conservation

Tillage Management
This section presents an overview of the benefits of tillage and residue management and techniques for implementing it. Tillage is defined as the mechanical manipulation of the soil for the purpose of crop production significantly affecting the soil characteristics such as soil water conservation, soil temperature, infiltration and evapotranspiration processes. Tillage systems are sequences of operations that manipulate the soil in order to produce a crop. The ways in which these operations are implemented affect the physical and chemical properties of the soil, which in turn affect plant growth.
Tillage management is any form of conservation tillage where residue, mulch, or sod is left on the soil surface to reduce soil disturbance and decrease emissions release. Recent studies on tillage show that conservation tillage increases soil carbon in the upper layers. This is of crucial importance for the productivity of most tropical soils.

Tillage Systems
Conservation Tillage
This is the tillage and planting system that covers 30 percent or more of the soil surface with crop residue, after planting, to reduce soil erosion by water. Where soil erosion by wind is the primary concern, conservation tillage is defined as any system that maintains at least 1,120 kilograms per hectare of flat, small grain residue equivalent on the surface throughout the critical wind erosion period. The tillage systems classified as conservation tillage are no-till, ridge-till, and mulch-till.

No-till - The soil is left undisturbed from harvest to planting except for nutrient injection. Planting or drilling is accomplished in a narrow seedbed or slot created by coulters, row cleaners, disk openers, in-row chisels, or rototillers. Weed control is accomplished primarily with herbicides. Cultivation may be used for emergency weed control.

Ridge-till-The soil is also left undisturbed from harvest to planting except for nutrient injection. Planting is completed in a seedbed prepared on ridges with sweeps, disk openers, coulters, or row cleaners. Residue is left on the surface between ridges. Weed control is accomplished with herbicides and/or cultivation. Ridges are rebuilt during cultivation.

Mulch-till - The soil is disturbed before planting and includes all conservation tillage practices other than no-till and ridge-till. Tillage tools such as chisels, field cultivators, disks, sweeps or blades are used. Weed control is accomplished with herbicides and/or cultivation. Two tillage practices that fall into this category are zone-till and strip-till. Both of these tillage practices involve tilling a strip into which seed, and fertiliser are placed. Although these are popular terms in some areas, they are not official survey categories because they are considered modifications of no-till, mulch-till or “other tillage types.” Less than 25% row width disturbance is considered no-till. More than 25% row width disturbance would be considered mulch-till or “other tillage type,” depending on the amount of residue left after planting.

Reduced-till - Reduced-till systems leave 15-30 percent residue cover after planting or 560 to 1,120 kilograms per hectare of small grain residue equivalent throughout the critical wind erosion period.

Conventional-till - Conventional-till systems leave less than 15 percent residue cover after planting, or less than 560 kilograms per hectare of small grain residue equivalent throughout the critical wind erosion period. These systems generally involve ploughing or some other form of intensive tillage.
There are other tillage systems that leave less than 30 percent crop residues but meet erosion control goals with or without other supporting conservation practices, such as strip cropping, contouring, terracing.

In-situ Water Harvesting
Rainwater harvesting for infiltration, also known as in-situ water harvesting, is a practice in which rainwater uptake in soils is increased through the soil surface, rooting system and groundwater. Soil effectively acts as the storage agent, which improves water holding capacity and fertility and reduce risks of soil loss and erosion. Examples of water harvesting practices include bench terraces, ‘Fanya juu’ terraces, check dams, contour bunds and hedgerows, planting pits / Zai pits, Katumani pits, stone lines, trash lines, grassed waterway, retention ditches as indicated below:

Cut-offdrains
Cut-off drains are made across a slope for intercepting the surface runoff and carrying it safely to an outlet such as a canal or stream. Their main purpose is the protection of cultivated land, compounds, and roads from uncontrolled runoff, and to divert water from gully heads. It serves as both soil and water conservation method.

Retention Ditches
These are made along the contours to capture and retain incoming runoff water and hold it until it seeps into the ground. They are alternate to cut-off drains when there is no channel to discharge the water nearby. Sometimes these are for water harvesting in semiarid areas.

Terracing
Terraces are constructed across the field slope for soil and water conservation purposes. They reduce soil and water through erosion from hilly or sloppy lands by collecting and storing surface runoff. Terraces also increase water retention and infiltration in the soil. They consist of channels and embankments of soil constructed along the contour. They can be constructed using stone bunds or strips of vegetation (live or dead).

InfiltrationDitches
The structure used to harvest water from roads or other sources of runoff is infiltration ditches. They comprise dug along the contour, upslope from a crop field and a ditch of 0.7-1.5m deep. Water is blocked at the other end when it is diverted from the roadside into a ditch and seeps into soil after being trapped.

Water-RetainingPits
Water-retaining pits allow runoff water to seep into soil after trapping the water. The runoff normally occurs into a series of pits which are dug into ground. Banks around the pits are made by the soil from the pit. Excessive water carries from one pit to the next by furrows. The amount of runoff determines the size of the pit and its typical size is 2 m square and 1 m deep.

Broad Beds and Furrows
The runoff water is diverted into field furrows (30 cm wide and 30 cm deep) in a broad bed and furrow system. The lower end of field furrows is blocked. The water backs up into the head furrow after the filling of one furrow and flows into the next field furrow. Crops are grown on the broad bed furrows of about 170 cm wide between the fields.

Rainwater Harvesting for Storage (Ex-Situ Rainwater Harvesting)
Rainwater harvesting for storage, also known as ex situ water harvesting, is a practice in which rainwater is collected and stored for productive use, for example drinking water, agriculture, sanitation and more. The rainwater can be directly captured in open storage systems, but can also be collected from roofs, soil surfaces or roads. The practice is important in arid and semi-arid areas that may experience extended periods without rain mixed with periods of intense precipitation.

Rooftop Water Harvesting with Above Ground Tank
A roof becomes a catchment when it is used for harvesting rainwater. Then it can be called a Roof catchment. Roofs are the most common types of catchments used for harvesting rainfall. In most cases, roof catchment systems provide water that can be used for domestic purposes. However, roof runoff harvesting is also used for agricultural purposes including micro irrigation of kitchen gardens, watering livestock, and for beekeeping projects. The tank size is dependent on the rainfall regime, the water demand and roof area available.

WaterPans
Water pans are shallow depressions (1 m to 3 m deep) constructed to collect and hold runoff water from various surfaces including from hillsides, roads, rocky areas and open rangelands. When properly designed and with good sedimentation basins, the water collected can be used for livestock watering or to supplement the irrigation of crops.

Small Earthen Dams
When larger quantities of water are desired, earthen dams are preferred. An earthen dam is constructed either on- stream or off-stream, where there is a source of large quantities of channel flow. The dam wall is 2 - 5 m high and has a clay core and stone aprons and spillways to discharge excess runoff. Volume of water ranges from hundreds to tens of thousands of cubic metres. Earth dams can provide adequate water for irrigation projects as well as for livestock watering. Sediment traps and delivery wells may help to improve water quality but, as with water from earthen dams, it is usually not suitable for drinking without being subject to treatment. The cost implication is the limiting factor.

Sand Dams
Many seasonal rivers in the semi-arid areas of Kenya have sand. Though dry for most part of the year, these rivers flood during the rainy season. A sand dam is a wall constructed across the stream to restrict surface flow. The height of the dam wall is increased by 0.3 m after 30 floods have deposited sand to the level of the spillway. The water in the sand dam can be reserved for a long time due to low evaporative losses. The most convenient way to harvest water in a sand river is by sand.

Wells and Boreholes
In regions without notable and reliable surface water resources it is necessary to obtain water from underground sources such as wells and boreholes.

Soil and Water Conservation Measures
There are two types of measures for soil and water conservation, that is, mechanical/engineering/structural measures and biological measures. Mechanical measures are permanent and semi-permanent structures that involve terracing, bunding, trenching, check dams, gabion structures, loose/stone boulders, crib wall, etc., while biological measures are vegetative measures which involve forestry, agroforestry, horticulture, and agricultural/agronomic practices.

Biological Measures (agronomic/agricultural and agroforestry)
Contour Farming
Contour farming is one of the most used agronomic measures for soil and water conservation in hilly agro-ecosystems and sloppy lands. All the agricultural operations viz. ploughing, sowing, inter-culture, etc., are practiced along the contour line. The ridges and furrows formed across the slope build a continual series of small barriers to the flowing water which reduces the velocity of runoff and thus reduces soil erosion and nutrient loss. It conserves soil moisture in low rainfall areas due to increased infiltration rate and time of concentration, while in high rainfall areas, it reduces the soil loss. In both situations, it reduces soil erosion, conserves soil fertility and moisture, and thus improves overall crop productivity. However, the effectiveness of this practice depends upon rainfall intensity, soil type, and topography of a particular locality.

Choice of Crops
The selection of the right crop is crucial for soil and water conservation. The crop should be selected according to the intensity and critical period of rainfall, market demand, climate, and resources of the farmer. The crop with good biomass, canopy cover, and extensive root system protects the soil from the erosive impact of rainfall and creates an obstruction to runoff, and thereby reduces soil and nutrient loss. Row or tall-growing crops such as sorghum, maize, pearl millet, etc. are erosion permitting crops which expose the soil and induce the erosion process.
Whereas close growing or erosion resistant crops with dense canopy cover and vigorous root system viz. cowpea, green gram, black gram, groundnut, etc. are the most suitable crops for reducing soil erosion. To increase the crop canopy density, the seed rate should always be on the higher side.

Crop Rotation
Crop rotation is the practice of growing different types of crops in succession on the same field to get maximum profit from the least investment without impairing the soil fertility. Monocropping results in exhaustion of soil nutrients and deplete soil fertility. The inclusion of legume crops in crop rotation reduces soil erosion, restores soil fertility, and conserves soil and water. Further, the Soil incorporation of crop residue improves organic matter content, soil health, and reduces water pollution. A suitable rotation with high canopy cover crops helps in sustaining soil fertility; suppresses weed growth, decreases pests and disease infestation, increases input use efficiency, and system productivity while reducing the soil erosion.

Cover Crops
The close-growing crops having high canopy density are grown for protection of soil against erosion, known as cover crops. Legume crops have better biomass to protect soil than row crops. The effectiveness of cover crops depends on crop geometry and development of canopy for interception of raindrops which helps in reducing the exposure of soil surface for erosion. It has been reported that legumes provide better cover and better protection to land against runoff and soil loss as compared to cultivated fallow and sorghum. The most effective cover crops are cowpea, green gram, black gram, groundnut, etc.
Advantages

• Protection of soil from the erosive impact of raindrops, runoff, and wind.
• Act as an obstacle in water flow, reduce flow velocity, and thereby reduce runoff and soil loss.
• Increase soil organic matter by residue incorporation and deep root system.
• Improve nutrients availability to the component crop and succeeding crops through biological nitrogen fixation.
• Improve water quality and water holding capacity of the soil.
• Improve soil properties, suppress weed growth, and increase crop productivity.

Intercropping
Cultivation of two or more crops simultaneously in the same field with definite or alternate row pattern is known as intercropping. It may be classified as row, strip, and relay intercropping as per the crops, soil type, topography, and climatic conditions. Intercropping involves both time-based and spatial dimensions. Erosion permitting and resisting crops should be intercropped with each other. The crops should have different rooting patterns. Intercropping provides better coverage on the soil surface, reduces the direct impact of raindrops, and protects soil from erosion.

Advantages

• High total biomass production.
• Efficient utilisation of soil and water resources.
• Reduction of marketing risks due to the production of a variety of products at different periods.
• Drought conditions can be mitigated through intercropping.
• Reduce the weed population and epidemic attack of insect pests or diseases.
• It improves soil fertility.

Intercropping maize and beans

Strip Cropping
Growing alternate strips of erosion permitting and erosion resistant crops with a deep root system and high canopy density in the same field is known as strip cropping. This practice reduces the runoff velocity and checks erosion processes and nutrients loss from the field. The erosion resistant crops protect soil from beating action of raindrops, reduces runoff velocity, and thereby increased time of concentration which results in a higher volume of soil moisture and increased crop production. Strip cropping is practised for controlling the run-off and erosion and thereby maintaining soil fertility.

Types of Strip Cropping
Contour strip cropping: The growing of alternate strips of erosion permitting and erosion resisting crops across the slopes on the contour is known as contour strip cropping. It reduces the direct beating action of raindrops on the soil surface, length of the slope, runoff flow and increases rainwater absorption into the soil profile.

• Field strip cropping: In this practice the field crops are grown in more or less parallel strips across fairly uniform slopes, but not on exact contours. It is useful on regular slopes and with soils of high infiltration rates, where contour strip cropping may not be practical.
• Wind strip cropping: It consists of the planting of tall-growing row crops (such as maize, pearl millet, and sorghum) and close or short growing crops in alternately arranged straight and long, but relatively narrow, parallel strips laid out right across the direction of the prevailing wind, regardless of the contour.
• Permanent or temporary buffer strip cropping: It is the growing of permanent strips of grasses or legume or a mixture of grass and legume in highly eroded areas or in areas that do not fit into regular rotation, i.e., steep, or highly eroded, slopes in fields under contour strip cropping. These strips are not practised in normal strip cropping and generally planted on a permanent or temporary basis.

Mulching
Mulch is any organic or non-organic material that is used to cover the soil surface to protect the soil from being eroded away, reduce evaporation, increase infiltration, regulate soil temperature, improve soil structure, and thereby conserve soil moisture. Mulching prevents the formation of hard crust after each rain. The use of blade harrows between rows or intercultural operations creates “dust mulch” on the soil surface by breaking the continuity of capillary tubes of soil moisture and reduces evaporation losses. Mulching also reduces the weed infestation along with the benefits of moisture conservation and soil fertility improvement. Hence, it can be used in high rainfall regions for decreasing soil and water loss, and in low rainfall regions for soil moisture conservation. Organic mulches improve organic matter and consequently improve the water holding capacity, macro and micro fauna biodiversity, their activity, and fertility of the soil.

Conservation Tillage
In this practice at least 30% of soil surface should remain covered with crop residue before and after planting the next crop to reduce soil erosion and runoff, as well as other benefits such as C sequestration. This term includes reduced tillage, minimum tillage, no-till, direct drill, mulch tillage, stubble-mulch farming, trash farming, strip tillage, etc. The concept of conservation tillage is widely accepted in large scale mechanised crop production systems to reduce the erosive impact of raindrops and to conserve the soil moisture with the maintenance of soil organic carbon. Conservation tillage improves the infiltration rate and reduces runoff and evaporation losses. It also improves soil health, organic matter, soil structure, productivity, soil fertility, and nutrient cycling and reduces soil compaction.

Organic Farming
Organic farming is an agricultural production system that is devoid of the use of synthetic fertilisers or pesticides and includes organic sources for plant nutrient supply viz. FYM, compost, vermicompost, green manure, residue mulching, crop rotation, etc. to maintain a healthy and diverse ecosystem for improving soil properties and ensuring a sustained crop production. It is an environmentally friendly agricultural crop production system.
The maintenance of high organic matter content and continuous soil surface cover with cover crops, green manure, and residue mulch reduce the soil erosion in organic farming. It leads to the addition of a large quantity of organicmanures which enhances water infiltration through improved bio-physico-chemical properties of soil, and eventually reduces soil erodibility. Organic materials improve soil structure through the development of soil binding agents (e.g. polysaccharides) and stabilising and strengthening aggregates which reduce the disintegration of soil particles and thus reduced soil erosion. Soil erosion rates from soils under organic farming can be 30–140% lower than those from conventional farming.

Land Configuration Techniques
Adoption of appropriate land configuration and planting techniques according to crops, cropping systems, soil type, topography, rainfall, etc. help in better crop establishment, intercultural operations, reduce runoff, soil and nutrient loss, conserve water, efficient utilisation of resources and result in higher productivity and profitability. Ridge and furrow raised bed and furrow, broad bed and furrow, and ridding the land between the rows are important land configuration techniques.

• Ridge and furrow system: Raising rainy season crops on ridges and rabi season crops in furrows reduces the soil crusting and ensures good crop stand over sowing on flat beds. Moreover, inter-row rainwater can be drained out properly during the monsoon period and collected in farm ponds, for life-saving irrigations and profile recharging for the establishment of rabi crops. It leads to the increased moisture content in soil profile which reduces moisture stress on plants during the drought period. This method is most suitable for wide-spaced crops viz. cotton, maize, vegetables, etc.
• Broad bed and furrow system: This system has been developed by the ICRISAT in India. It is primarily advocated for high rainfall areas (>750 mm) having black cotton soils (Vertisols). Beds of 90–120 cm width are formed, separated by sunken furrows of about 50–60 cm wide and 15 cm depth. The preferred slope along the furrow is between 0.4 and 0.8% on Vertisols. Two to four rows of the crop can be grown on the bed, and the width and crop geometry can be adjusted to suit the cultivation and planting equipment.

Advantages

• Increase in-situ soil moisture conservation
• Safely dispose of excess runoff without causing erosion
• Improved soil aeration for plant growth and development
• Easier for weeding and mechanical harvesting
• It can accommodate a wide range of crop geometry.

Mechanical Measures
Mechanical measures or engineering structures are designed to modify the land slope, to convey runoff water safely to the waterways, to reduce sedimentation and runoff velocity, and to improve water quality. These measures are either used alone or integrated with biological measures to improve the performance and sustainability of the control measures. In highly eroded and sloppy landscape biological measures should be supplemented by mechanical structures. A number of permanent and temporary mechanical measures are available such as terraces, contour bunding, check dams, gabions, diversion drains, geo-textiles, etc.
The mechanical measures are preferred based on the severity of erosion, soil type, topography, and climate.

Bunding

• Contour bunding: Contour bunding is used to conserve soil moisture and reduce erosion in the areas having 2–6% slope and mean annual precipitation of <600 mm with permeable soils . The vertical interval between two bunds is known as the spacing of bunds. The spacing of bund is dependent on the erosive velocity of runoff, length of the slope, slope steepness, rainfall intensity, type of crops, and conservation practices.
• Graded bunding: Graded bunds are made to drain out of excess runoff water safely in areas having 6–10% land slope and receiving rainfall of >750 mm with the soils having infiltration rate < 8 mm/h.
• Peripheral bunds: Peripheral bunds are constructed around the gully head to check the entry of runoff into the gully. It protects the gully head from being eroded away through erosion processes. It creates a favourable condition for the execution of vegetative measures on gully heads, slopes, and beds.

Contour bunds

Contour Trenching
Trenches are constructed at the contour line to reduce the runoff velocity for soil moisture conservation in the areas having <30% slope. Bunds are formed on the downstream side of trenches for the conservation of rainwater. Trenches are of two types:

• Continuous contour trenches: Continuous contour trenches are constructed based on the size of the field in the low rainfall areas with the 10–20 cm trench length and 20–25 cm equaliser width without any discontinuity in trench length (10–20 m).
• Staggered contour trenches (STCs): Generally, these trenches are constructed in alternate rows directly beneath one another in a staggered manner in the high rainfall areas, where the risk of overflow is prominent. SCTs are 2–3 m long with 3–5 m spacing between the rows. Planting of tree species is done based on the land slope. It is highly effective in forestalling extension of gully head, soil loss, and arrest the overflow.

Terracing
Terraces are earthen embankments built across the dominant slope partitioning the field in uniform and parallel segments. Generally, these structures are combined with channels to convey runoff into the main outlet at reduced velocities. It reduces the degree and length of slope and thus reduces runoff velocity, soil erosion and improves water infiltration. It is recommended for the lands having a slope of up to 33% but can be adopted for lands having up to 50–60% slope, based on socio-economic conditions of a particular region. Where plenty of good-quality stones are available, stone bench terracing is recommended. Sometimes, semi-circular type terraces are built at the downstream side of the plants, known as half-moon terraces. Based on the slope of benches, the bench terraces are classified into the following categories:

• Bench terraces sloping outward: These types of terraces are used in low rainfall areas having permeable soils. A shoulder bund is provided for stability of the edge of the terrace and thus has more time for rainwater soaking into the soil.
• Bench terraces sloping inward (hill-type terraces): These types of bench terraces are suitable for heavy rainfall areas where a higher portion of rainfall is to be drained as runoff. For this, a suitable drain should be provided at the inward end of each terrace to drain the runoff. These are also known as hill-type terraces.
• Bench terraces with level top: These types of terraces are suitable for uniformly distributed medium rainfall areas having deep and highly permeable soils. These are also known as irrigated bench terraces because of their use in irrigated areas.

Check Dams
Check dams are effective for preventing runoff rate and severe erosion in steep and broad gullies, and most suitable for high elevation areas of the catchment.
These structures are cheap, have a long life, and fewer maintenance requirements. The depth of the gully bed is kept about 0.3 m and flat stones of 20–30 cm size are used for the construction of dams. A spillway is provided in the middle of the dam to allow the safe discharge of runoff water. Similarly, gabion check dams are also used for drainage line treatment in sharp slanted gullied areas to check sedimentation, erosion, and to conserve soil moisture.

Brushwood Check Dams
Branches of tree and shrub species are staked in two rows parallel to each other filled with brushwood and laid across the gully or way of the flow. These are usually built to regulate the overflow in small and medium gullies which are supplemented with vegetative barriers for long term effectiveness. There is enough soil volume to establish the vegetation. The tree species are planted in 0.3 m × 0.2 m trenches across the way of gullies. It reduces the runoff velocity, soil loss, and improves soil moisture which helps in the successful establishment of vegetative barriers.

Diversion Drains
The channels are constructed to protect the downstream area and for safe draining and diverting of runoff water. It is applicable in high rainfall areas to control runoff losses during the initial stage. The gradient of diversion drain should preferably be kept within 0.5%. Generally, a narrow and deep drain does not get silted up as rapidly as a broad and shallow drain of the same cross-sectional area. Soil dug from the drain should be dumped on the lower side of the drain. Outlet end should be opened at natural drainage lines.

Conservation Bench Terrace
Some of the future concern for soil and water conservation and sustainable agriculture are:

• Formulation of new policies and development of new technologies based on social, economic and cultural aspects of a particular region.
• Implementation and adoption of effective conservation measures for sustaining agricultural productivity.
• Existing soil and water conservation practices should be improved and developed based on the level of natural resources degradation.
• Greater emphasis should be given on participatory approach for effective soil and water conservation.
• Post impact assessment and monitoring of soil and water conservation measures should be done to evaluate their efficacy in increasing productivity, monetary returns, and livelihood of the stakeholders.
• Development of cost-effective conservation practices to restore the degraded lands and to sustain agricultural productivity.
• The efficient technologies for soil and water conservation should be demonstrated on farmers’ fields with their active participation.
• Emphasis on research, education and extension of soil and water conservation effective technologies to the stakeholders.
• Adoption of efficient management practices and judicious use of soil and water resources.

2.2.4 SUB-MODULE 4: MANAGEMENT OF PROBLEMATIC SOILS
Problematic or problem soils refer to soils that possess characteristics that make them uneconomical for the cultivation of crops without adopting proper reclamation measures. There are three major types of problem soils.

• Physical problem soils
• Chemical problem soils
• Biological problem soils

Soils with Physical Problems for Agricultural Production
Physical problematic soils have physical properties with some limitations. They include impermeable soils, soil surface crusting and sealing, subsoil hardpan, shallow soils, highly permeable soils, heavy clay soils and fluffy paddy soils slow permeable soils/ impermeable soils.
Slow permeable soils have very high clay content which restricts the infiltration rate and encourages runoff, erosion and nutrient removal from the top layers of soil. Such soils have very poor drainage, aeration and suffer from reducing conditions.

Impermeable soils can be managed by adoption of the following practices:

• Addition of organic matter such as farmyard manure (FYM), compost, composted coir pith and press mud improves physical properties leading to improved water retention capacity.
• Ridges and furrows within the farm provide adequate root zone aeration.
• Broad/cumbered beds reduce the amount of water retained in black clay soils during the first days of rainfall. The beds should be formed either along the slope or across the slope with drainage furrows in between broad beds.
• Provision of open or subsurface drainage to reduce waterlogged conditions.
• Huge quantity of sand /red soil application to change the texture contour /compartmental bunding to increase the infiltration. Application of soil conditioners like vermiculite to reduce runoff and erosion

2-2-4-Sub-Module 4

Soil Surface Crusting and Sealing
Soil sealing and hard setting or soil capping are common problems in most soils in sub-humid and semi-arid tropics. Soil sealing refers to the formation of a thin impermeable layer on dry soils due to the impact of raindrops while surface crust refers to the formation of a compact layer within a few millimetres to a few centimetres’ depths. The crusts are formed by either physical forces such as livestock trampling or traffic by agricultural machinery and other off-loading vehicles or chemically by the presence of colloidal oxides of iron and aluminium that binds soil particles together in wet soils. Such soils may have the following problems:

• Poor seed germination or retarded root growth
• Poor infiltration rates and high runoff rates
• Poor aeration within the rhizosphere
• Poor biological nitrogen fixation due to poor nodule development in legumes.
• Soils with surface seal or crusting problems can be managed by the following practices:
• Application of organic matter to improve soil physical properties
• Ploughing to break the seal and surface crust.
• Scraping the surface soil by tooth harrow.
• Bold grained seeds may be used for sowing on the crusted soils.
• More seeds/hill may be adopted for small, seeded crops.
• Sprinkling water regularly.
• Resistant crops like cowpea can be grown.
• Lime or gypsum may be uniformly spread before ploughing in severely crusted soils.

Sub Soil Hard Pan
This refers to a compacted subsurface soil layer. The compact layer is formed by accumulation of clay below the surface causing the subsoil to be dense, difficult for roots and water to penetrate hence leading to reduced water and nutrient uptake and low crop yields. Such soils are also susceptible to soil erosion. Subsoil hardpan can be managed by the following practices:
Deep cultivation
Ploughing with a chisel plough at 50 cm intervals in both directions. Chiseling helps to break the hardpan in the subsoil besides it ploughs up to 45 cm depth.
Application of organic matter
Application of farmyard manure or compost or composted coir pith helps in improving the soil physical properties.
Shallow Soils
Shallow soils are less than 50 cm depth. Soils having a depth of 50-100 cm are referred to as moderately deep soils while soils with a depth greater than 100 cm are referred to as deep soils. Most shallow soils are found on high mountains and valleys, and they basically occur in areas where soils are not well formed. Shallow soils restrict root elongation, spreading, water and nutrient holding capacity and crop uptake. Shallow soils can be managed through growing shallow-rooted crops and frequent soil fertility or water management practices.

Highly permeable soils (sandy soils)
Sandy soils containing more than 70% sand fractions are referred to as highly permeable. Such soils have poor nutrient and water retention capacity, very high hydraulic conductivity and infiltration rates. The soils normally lack the finer particles, poor organic matter and living organism population; have poor temperature regulation, weak aggregate stability and very poor soil structure. These soils have poor soil fertility, nutrients and water added is subject to loss through deep infiltration which does not benefit the target crops.
Sandy soils can be managed by adoption of the following practices:

• Application of organic matter such as farmyard manure or compost or slurry to improve soil aggregation.
• Crop rotation with green manure crops.
• Frequent irrigation with low quality water.
• Frequent split application of fertilisers.
• Uniform ploughing.
• Application of clay soil depending on availability of clay materials.

Heavy Clay Soils
Clay soils are those whose particles are less than 0.002 mm in diameter. These soils have poor permeability, but their permeability differs with clay content. Most soils are classified as clay soils when they are made up of about 40% clay particles. An example of a heavy clay soil is Vertisols.

Soils with chemical problems for Agricultural production.
Soils with chemical problems for Agricultural production include acid soils and salt affected soils.

Acid soils
Soil with a pH of less than 7 are generally referred to as acid soils. The acidity level however increases pH decrease from 7 towards zero with pH levels lower than 5.5 being strongly acidic and pH of less than 4.75 being extremely acidic.

Acidity in soils can be caused by the mineralogy of parent material, organic matter accumulation, leaching of base cations (calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium), and management practices such as continuous use of acid forming fertilisers, application of elemental sulphur which undergoes reactions forming sulphuric acid, tillage practices and soil pollution.

At pH levels less than 5.5 most micronutrients are abundant and soluble except molybdenum. Some of the abundant micronutrients are toxic to plant roots and soil microorganisms. Oxides and hydroxides of some micronutrients like aluminium (Al) and iron (Fe) form insoluble complexes with important nutrients like phosphorus hence making them unavailable for plant and microorganisms’ uptake. At pH less than 5.5, some base cations such as calcium and magnesium are also low, which adversely affects the base saturation levels.

Soil acidity can be managed by application of organic amendments such as manure. Organic matter is a strong buffering agent that buffers the soil against drastic changes in pH on top of replenishing soil nutrients. Application of pulverised limestone or dolomitic limestone (which has magnesium in addition to calcium carbonate that makes up regular lime) is one the fastest ways to increase soil’s pH or reduction of soil acidity. Liming materials should be added periodically depending on the nature and level of acidity in particular soils. Basic slag obtained from the iron and steel industry can be substituted for lime because it contains 48-54%CaO and 3-4%MgO. Calcium ammonium phosphate fertilisers, citrate soluble phosphate fertilisers and potassium sulphate are suitable sources of N, P and K respectively in acidic soils.

Saline Soils
Saline soils are non-sodic. They contain sufficient soluble salt to adversely affect the growth of most crop plants with a lower limit of electrical conductivity of the saturated extract (ECe) being 4 Deci Siemens / meter (dS/m), which is equivalent to a value of 4 mmhos/cm. These salts might originate from the parent rock from which the soils were formed or from seawater in low lying areas along the coastal strip. A very common source of salts in irrigated soils is the irrigation water. Most irrigation waters contain some salts. After irrigation, the added water is used by the crop or evaporates directly from the soil then salt is left behind. If not removed, the salts accumulate over time in a process called salinization. Salty underground water may also contribute to salinity when the water table rises. For example: irrigation without proper drainage may cause salty groundwater to rise to the upper layers thus supplying salts to the root zone. Very salty soils are sometimes recognizable by a white layer or dry salt on the soil surface.
The reclamation of saline soils involves basically the removal of salts from the root zone soil through the processes of leaching with water and drainage. Provision of lateral and main drainage channels 60 cm deep and 45 cm wide and leaching of salts could reclaim the soils. Sub-surface drainage is an effective tool for lowering the water table, removal of excess salts and prevention of secondary salinization.

Irrigation of Saline Soils
Proportional mixing of good quality (if available) water with saline water and then using it for irrigation reduces the effect of salinity. Alternate furrow irrigation favours the growth of plants rather than flooding. Drip, sprinkler and pitcher irrigation have been found to be more efficient than the conventional flood irrigation method since a relatively lesser amount of water is used under these improved methods.

Fertiliser Management for Saline soils
Addition of extra dose of nitrogen to the tune of 20-25% of recommended level will compensate for the low availability of N in these soils. Addition of organic manures like FYM, compost, etc. Helps in reducing the ill effect of salinity due to release of organic acids produced during decomposition. Green manuring and green leaf manuring also counteracts the effects of salinity.

Sodic Soils
Sodic soils contain sufficient exchangeable sodium to adversely affect the growth of most crop plants. They have high levels of exchangeable sodium (Na) and low levels of total salts caused by natural presence of minerals producing sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) or sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) upon weathering. They contain an exchangeable sodium percentage greater than 15% and a pH of 8.2 or more. Extreme cases may have a pH of above 10.5. These soils tend to occur within arid to semi-arid regions and are innately unstable, exhibiting poor physical and chemical properties, which impede water infiltration, water availability and ultimately plant growth. Sodic soils may impact plant growth by a) sodium toxicity to sodium sensitive plants; b) Nutrient deficiencies or imbalances; c) High pH of > 8.0 and d) soil structure destruction or dispersion or flocculation of clay minerals.

Sodic soils can be reclaimed or managed using several approaches, they include:

• Establishment of sodic tolerant crops
• Application of organic manures
• Application of chemical amendments such as soluble calcium salts (gypsum, calcium chloride), acids or acid forming substances (sulphuric acid, iron sulphate, aluminium sulphate, lime-sulphur, and pyrite) or calcium salts of low solubility like ground limestone. The compounds in the salts or acids react with the sodium carbonate (Na2CO3 or NaHCO3) forming a leachable compound.
• Agronomic management such as planting at the edge of hills, leaching and crop rotation among others.

2-2-4-Sub-Module 4

Alkaline Soils
Alkaline soils are clay soils with high pH, poor soil structure and low infiltration capacity. Often, they have a hard calcareous layer at 0.5 to 1 metre depth. The causes of alkaline soils are natural or can be man-made. Natural causes are the presence of minerals producing sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃) or sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃) upon weathering.
Alkaline soils with solid CaCO₃ can be reclaimed with grass cultures, organic compost, waste hair and feathers, organic garbage, etc. Ensuring the incorporation of much acidifying materials (inorganic or organic material) into the soil and enhancing dissolved Ca in the field water by releasing CO₂ gas. Deep ploughing and incorporation of the calcareous subsoil into the topsoil also helps.

Soils with Biological Problems for Agricultural Production
These are soils whose biological properties have undesirable biological properties like low organic matter content and harmful macro and microorganisms. Bacterial wilt, Fusarium wilt and nematodes are some of the unfavourable biological soil pathogens.
Biological properties of soils - Soil organisms break down organic matter and while doing so make nutrients available for uptake by plants. The nutrients stored in the bodies of soil organisms prevent nutrient loss by leaching. Microbes also maintain soil structure while earthworms are important in bioturbation in the soil. Biological degradation of soil is the impairment or elimination of one or more “significant” populations of microorganisms in the soil, often with a resulting change in biogeochemical processing within the associated ecosystem

2.2.5 SUB-MODULE 5: IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE
Introduction
In the dry lands of sub-Saharan Africa, water defficiency is the most important environmental factor limiting yields in agriculture. When irrigated, these areas can have a high yield potential because of the high solar radiation, favourable day and night temperature and low atmospheric humidity, conditions that decrease the incidence of pests and diseases compared to areas in temperate zones. The key to maximising crop yields per unit of supplied water in dry lands is ensuring that as much as possible of the available moisture is used through plant transpiration and as little as possible is lost through soil evaporation, deep percolation and transpiration from weeds.
There has been growing concern on the performance of conventional irrigation systems in sub-Saharan Africa. The poor performance of irrigation projects seems to have contributed to stagnation in new irrigation development. Irrigation potential in the region is considerable but largely unexploited.
The anticipated long-term yield increases for irrigated land which earlier depended on unpredictable and unreliable rainfall have not always been achieved. This has contributed to irrigation losing its appeal as an investment strategy. Good performance in irrigation systems is not only a matter of high output but also of efficient use of available resources. For example, the inefficient use of irrigation water in arid areas is not only wasteful but often leads to salinization of the soil profile. Irrigation systems that are to be effective and efficient must ensure that drainage, maintenance of soil fertility and salinity-control measures are employed.

Major Methods of Irrigation
Irrigation water is applied to land by three general methods: surface irrigation, sprinkler irrigation and localised irrigation systems. The choice of irrigation method is site specific and depends on topography, the amount of water available, the quality of the water and soils, as well as economic and social considerations.

Surface Irrigation
The surface method of irrigation involves applying water over the soil surface. The water is conveyed over the soil surface and infiltrates into the soil at a rate determined by the infiltration capacity of the soil. Surface irrigation methods include:

Basin Irrigation
Basin irrigation where water is applied to a flat area surrounded by dikes. The water ponded in the basin area continues to percolate into the soil sometime after the stream has been turned off. Basin irrigation stream sizes are usually 15.240 litres per second depending on soil texture, field size, required depth of irrigation and bund height.
Advantages

• Check basins are useful when leaching is required to remove salts from the soil profile.
• Rainfall can be conserved, and soil erosion is reduced by retaining large part of rain
• High water application and distribution efficiency.

Limitations

• The ridges interfere with the movement of implements.
• More area occupied by ridges and field channels.
• Impedes surface drainage
• Precise land grading and shaping are required
• Labour requirement is higher.
• Not suitable for crops which are sensitive to wet soil conditions around the stem.

Border Irrigation
In Border irrigation, water is allowed to flow down a gentle slope (< 0.1%) between bunds. It advances slowly down the strip and is stopped when sufficient water has infiltrated at the top of the border strip. Border stream sizes are usually 2.15 l/s/m depending on soil type, slope, width and length of border strip and depth of irrigation.
Advantages

• Border ridges can be constructed with simple farm implements like bullock drawn “A” frame ridger or bund former.
• Labour requirement in irrigation is reduced as compared to conventional check basin method.
• Uniform distribution of water and high-water application efficiencies are possible.
• Large irrigation streams can be efficiently used.
• Adequate surface drainage is provided if outlets are available.

Furrow irrigation
Furrow irrigation where water is allowed to flow down slope in small channels (furrows) between crop rows. The water is gradually absorbed into the bottom and sides of the furrow to wet the soil. Furrow irrigation stream sizes are usually 0.2.3.0 l/s.
Advantages

• Water in furrows contacts only one half to one fifth of the land surface.
• Labour requirement for land preparation and irrigation is reduced.
• Compared to check basins there is less wastage of land in field ditches.

There are 2 types of furrow irrigation based on the alignment of furrows

• Straight furrows
• Contour furrows

There are 2 types of furrow irrigation based on size and spacing

• Deep furrows
• Corrugations

2-2-5 Sub Module 5

Based on Irrigation:

• All furrow irrigation: Water is applied evenly in all the furrows and are called furrow system or uniform furrow system.
• Alternate furrow irrigation: It is not an irrigation layout but a technique for water saving. Water is applied in alternate furrows for e.g. during first irrigation if the even numbers of furrows are irrigated, during next irrigation, the odd number of furrows will be irrigated.
• Skip furrow irrigation: They are normally adopted during water scarcity and to accommodate intercrops. A set of furrows are completely skipped out from irrigation permanently. The skipped furrow will be utilised for raising intercrop. The system ensures water saving of 30-35%. By this method, the available water is economically used without much field reduction.
• Surge irrigation: Water is applied into the furrows intermittently in a series of relatively short ON and OFF times of irrigation cycle. Intermittent application of water reduces the infiltration rate over surges thereby the waterfront advances quickly. Hence, reduced net irrigation water requirement. This also results in more uniform soil moisture distribution and storage in the crop root zone compared to continuous flow. The irrigation efficiency is between 85 and 90%.

Surface irrigation, however, may not be appropriate for porous soils (final infiltration rates > 7 cm/h) such as sandy soils, or soils with final infiltration rates that are too low (< 0.3 cm/h). Although surface irrigation can be efficient (70% or more), in a typical farmer’s situation less than half of the applied water reaches the plant because of poor irrigation practices. Higher efficiencies can be obtained where land characteristics are suitable for surface irrigation with proper design and better water management.

2-2-5 Sub Module 5

Sprinkler Irrigation
In overhead sprinkler irrigation, water is distributed in pipes under pressure and sprayed into the air so that the water breaks up into small water droplets that fall to the ground like natural rainfall. Sprinkler irrigation methods include conventional sprinklers, rain guns, centre pivot and linear move systems. Compared to surface irrigation, sprinkling generally requires less land levelling, can be adapted to sandy and fragile soils and requires less labour. However, higher pumping energy is required to lift the water and create enough pressure to operate the sprinklers. Care must be taken to sprinkle the water at rates lower than the soil’s final infiltration rate. This is especially important on heavy soils and sloping land where proper management of the soil is essential to ensure that the soil’s infiltration rate is not reduced below the rate at which sprinklers apply the water.
A typical application efficiency is 75%, that is, some three-quarters of the applied water reaches the roots of the plant, while one-quarter is lost through deep percolation, runoff and evaporation losses.
There are 2 types of sprinkler systems

• 1. Rotating head (or) revolving sprinkler system
• 2. Perforated pipe system

Based on the portability

• Portable system: It has portable mainlines and laterals and a portable pumping unit
• Semi portable system: This is similar to a fully portable system except that the location of the water source and pumping plant are fixed.
• Semi-permanent system: This system has portable lateral lines, permanent main lines and sub - mains and a stationary water source and pumping plant. The main lines and sub-mains are usually buried, with risers for nozzles located at suitable intervals.
• Solid set system: This system has enough laterals to eliminate their movement. The laterals are placed in the field early in the crop season and remain for the season.
• Permanent system: It consists of permanently laid mains, sub-mains and laterals and a stationary water source and pumping plant. Mains, sub-mains and laterals are usually buried below plough depth. Sprinklers are permanently located on each riser.

Advantages

• Water saving to an extent of 35-40% compared to surface irrigation methods.
• Saving in fertilisers - even distribution and avoids wastage.
• Suitable for undulating topography (sloppy lands)
• Reduces erosion
• Suitable for coarse textured soils (sandy soils)
• Frost control - protects crops against frost and high temperature
• Drainage problems eliminated
• Saving in land
• Fertilisers and other chemicals can be applied through irrigation water

Disadvantages

• High initial cost
• Efficiency is affected by wind
• Higher evaporation losses in spraying water
• Not suitable for tall crops like sugarcane
• Not suitable for heavy clay soils
• Poor quality water cannot be used (Sensitivity of crop to saline water and clogging of nozzles).

2-2-5 Sub Module 5

Localised Irrigation Systems
Localised irrigation systems apply water directly where the plant is growing thus minimising water loss through evaporation from the soil. Such localised irrigation systems include drip irrigation, porous clay pots, porous pipes, and perforated plastic sleeves.

Drip Irrigation
With drip or trickle irrigation the water is applied into the soil through a small-sized opening directly on the soil surface or buried in the soil. By applying water at a very slow rate, drip irrigation can deliver water to the roots of individual plants as often as desired and at a relatively low cost. Because drip irrigation makes it possible to place water precisely where and when needed with a high degree of uniformity and efficiency (90% or more) the method is useful under many field and water situations.
Losses to runoff, deep percolation and evaporation are minimal; this means that most of the irrigation water is taken up by the plant. Drip irrigation is often the favoured method of irrigation, for example on steep and undulating slopes, for porous soils, for shallow soils, fields having widely varying soils, where water is scarce, where water is expensive, and where water is of poor quality.
Components

• A drip irrigation system consists of a pump or overhead tank, main line and sub-mains.
• The main line delivers water to the sub-mains and the sub-mains into the laterals.
• The emitters which are attached to the laterals distribute water for irrigation.
• The mains, sub-mains and laterals are usually made of black PVC (polyvinyl chloride) tubing. The emitters are also made of PVC material
• The other components include regulators, filters, valves, water metre, fertiliser application components, etc.

Advantages

• Water saving - losses due to deep percolation, surface runoff and transmission are avoided. Evaporation losses occurring in sprinkler irrigation do not occur in drip irrigation.
• Uniform water distribution
• Application rates can be adjusted by using different sizes of drippers
• Suitable for wide spaced row crops, particularly coconut and other horticultural tree crops
• Soil erosion is reduced
• Better weed control
• Land saving
• Less labour cost

Disadvantages

• High initial cost
• Drippers are susceptible to blockage
• Interferes with farm operations and movement of implements and machineries
• Frequent maintenance
• Trees grown may develop shallow confined root zones resulting in poor anchorage.

Drip irrigation demonstration trials at KALRO-Kabete

Porous Clay Pots
This is a method of irrigation in which water is stored in clay pots buried in the ground, is slowly released to the plants. This method is good for fruit trees. Such use of soil-embedded porous jars is one of the oldest continuous irrigation methods that probably originated in the Far East and North Africa. The method consists of:
Clay Pots that are placed in Shallow Pits Dug for this Purpose.
Soil is then packed around the neck of the pots so that the necks protrude a few centimetres above the ground surface. Water is poured into the pots either by hand or by means of a flexible hose connected to a water source. The pots are made of locally available clay with optimum properties of strength (to resist crushing), permeability (to exude water into the soil at an approximately steady rate), and size (to hold enough water for at least one day’s supply). The potential of clay-pot irrigation has not been fully exploited by farmers in the eastern and southern Africa region, even though the technology is suitable for small- scale farmers.

Porous Clay Pipes
This method is most suited to closely spaced crops such as vegetables. Water is spread along a continuous horizontal band in the soil. The locally made clay pipes are approximately 24 cm in length and 7.5 cm in internal diameter, with wall thickness of 2 cm. The pipes are placed at the bottom of a shallow trench (about 25 cm deep) representing the centre line of a 1-m wide bed.

Perforated Plastic Sleeves
Plastic sheeting has been used to make a sleeve-like casing. The advantage of this is the low cost. However, the method has several distinct disadvantages that restrict the range of its applicability. Since the soft plastic material used for making the sleeve does not retain its shape, the sleeve must be filled with sand before being placed in the soil. The sand filling reduces the capacity of the sleeve by some 50.60%. Moreover, the sand itself tends to retain a significant fraction of the moisture and thus restrict outflow.
Since the plastic casing is essentially impervious, it must be perforated. The difficulty of standardising the diameter and density of the perforations introduces another variable onto the system. The best configuration must be established by trial and error.
This method has been used with success in Senegal. An interesting variation in Sri Lanka consists of a 50-cm long PVC pipe of standard ½-inch diameter. The pipe ends in an emitter, a block made from a 1:10 cement/sand mixture. The design was found to be effective in enhancing the survival and growth rate of young fruit trees.

Different Irrigation Methods used in Horticultural Crops
Different horticultural crops require different amounts of water during their growth cycle. Some horticultural crops like sweet capsicum, tomatoes, watermelon and onions can be efficiently irrigated through drip irrigation systems. The drip system will allow for water and fertiliser to be used efficiently at the root zone of the plants for the crop to benefit effectively. It allows the crop to benefit from low water use, reduced weed pressure, higher quality produce with low diseases and pest pressure.

POSSIBLE IRRIGATION METHODS FOR DIFFERENT CROPS

2.2.6 SUB-MODULE 6: AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS

Introduction/concept of agroforestry
Agroforestry is the deliberate growing of woody perennials (trees, shrubs) as agricultural crops alongside other crops and/or livestock in the same land. Existing trees can be protected and managed, or/and new ones planted. It is estimated that trees occur on 46% of all agricultural lands and support 30% of all rural populations. Trees are used in many traditional and modern farming and rangeland systems.

Agroforestry has three major attributes: productivity, sustainability, and adaptability. Good agroforestry practices should maintain or increase production (productivity), meet the needs of the present generation without compromising those of future ones (sustainability) and be culturally acceptable and environmentally friendly (adoptability).

Components of an Agroforestry System

• Land. This is managed for the benefit of the landowner, environment, and long-term welfare of society, especially in the case of hillside farming where agriculture may lead to rapid loss of soil. Unfortunately, farmers who rent land may have less interest in the long-term benefits of agroforestry.
• Trees. Particular attention is placed on multiple purpose trees or perennial shrubs. The most important of these trees are the legumes because of their ability to fix nitrogen and thus make it available to other plants. The roles of trees may include sources of fruits, nuts, edible leaves and other food; construction material; non- edible materials including sap, resins, tannins, insecticides and medicinal compounds; fuel; beautification; shade; soil conservation; improvement of soil fertility.
• Non-trees. Any crop plant can be used in agroforestry systems. The choice of crop plants should be based on those crops already produced in a particular region either for marketing, feeding animals, or for home consumption, or that have great promise for production. Other values to be considered in crop selection include proper nutrition, self-sufficiency and soil protection; knowledge of the crops; adaptations; production uses, as well as family needs; opportunities for markets. Any farm animal can be used in agroforestry systems. The choice of animal will be based on the value the farmer places on animal-derived benefits including income, food, labour, non-food products, use of crop residues and manure.
  

Common Agroforestry Systems and Land-Use

Agri-Silviculture: It is the growing of agricultural crops as a primary component with the secondary component of multipurpose trees (MPTs) on the same managed land unit. The tree species bind soil particles in the root zone and increase water infiltration and reduce runoff.

Agri-Horticulture: Growing of agricultural crops and fruit trees on the same managed land unit is known as agri-horticulture. Fruit tree species like lemon (Citrus limon), mango (Mangifera indica), ber (Ziziphus Mauritania), and aonla (Phyllanthus emblica) can be successfully planted in agricultural fields and on degraded and low fertile lands with some restoration measures.

Alley Cropping: Growing of agricultural crops in the alley formed between the hedgerows of leguminous nitrogen-fixing tree species. This system is one of the effective measures for soil and water conservation in hilly areas.

Silvi-pasture System: Raising grasses or livestock with MPTs on the same managed land unit is known as the silvi- pasture system. This system has the potential to reclaim eroded and degraded lands. Mechanical measures combined with grass species cultivation are more effective for controlling soil erosion processes.
The grass species such as Cenchrus ciliaris (buffel grass), Cenchrus setigerus (bird wood grass), Dichanthium annulatum (marvel grass), Panicum antidotale (blue panic grass), Panicum maximum (Guinea grass), Brachiaria mutica (para grass) and Pennisetum purpureum (elephant grass) are important in ravine restoration.

Further Reading
Ayers, R.S. and Westcot, D.W. (1976). Water quality for agriculture. Irrigation and Drainage Paper No 29. Rome: FAO.

Bresler, E. and Yasutomi, R. (1990). Drip irrigation technology in semi-arid regions and international cooperation. Journal of Irrigation Engineering and Rural Planning 19:48-62.

Crossland, M., Chesterman, S., Magaju, C., Maithya, S., Mbuvi, C., Muendo, S., Musyoki, M., Muthuri, C., Muthuri, S., Mutua, F., Njoki, C., Sinclair, F. and Winowiecki, L. (2022). Supporting farmer innovation to restore: An illustrated five step guide to applying the options by context approach to land restoration. Nairobi, World Agroforestry.

Doorenbos, J. and Pruitt, W.O. (1977). Crop water requirements. Irrigation and Drainage Paper No 24. Rome: FAO. Esilaba, A.O., Nyongesa, D., Okoti, M., Otipa, M. and Lusike Wasilwa. (2021). KCEP-CRAL Integrated Soil Fertility and Water Management Extension Manual. Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organisation, Nairobi, Kenya.

Esilaba, A.O., Nyongesa, D., Okoti, M., Otipa, M. and Lusike Wasilwa. (2021). KCEP-CRAL Farm-Level Agricultural Resilience and Adaptation to Climate Change Extension Manual. Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organisation, Nairobi, Kenya.

Hillel, D. 1997. Small-scale irrigation for arid zones: principles and options. FAO Development Series 2. Rome: FAO.

Liniger, H.P., Mekdaschi Studer, R., Hauert, C. and Gurtner, M. (2011). Sustainable land management in practice – Guidelines and best Practices for Sub-Saharan Africa. TerrAfrica, World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies (WOCAT) and Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO). Reference Link

Mati, B. M. 2005. Overview of water and soil nutrient management under smallholder rainfed agriculture in East Africa. Working Paper 105. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI).

Mati, B.M., Kigomo, M.K., Kyallo, F.M., Ondieki-Mwaura, F., Githiri, S. and Nyangau, W.O. (2018). Water and resource management for resilient livelihoods in the semi-arid zones of Kenya: A Technical Manual for Planners and Decision Makers. Rural Resilience Programme, World Food Programme, Nairobi.

Mati, B.M.M. (2007). 100 Ways to manage water for smallholder agriculture in Eastern and Southern Africa: A Compendium of Technologies and Practices. IMAWESA, SWMnet Working Paper13. Document at ASARECA

2.3 MODULE 3 CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT
Introduction
Crop production plays a significant role in economic development as a source of; Income, employment creation, and saving on foreign exchange earnings through export of produce. Crop production faces numerous challenges including: drought, unreliable and inadequate rainfall, desert locust invasions, among other challenges which make farmers increasingly vulnerable. Proper crop management practices can improve production and improve the overall livelihoods of farmers.
This module focuses on crop production of selected crops that can be grown in marginalised areas under rainfed as well as irrigated agriculture. The module is divided into the following sub-modules;

• Sub-Module 1:Crop value chains suited for ASAL agro-ecological zones
• Sub-Module 2: Cropping systems and technologies
• Sub-Module 3: Integrated pest and disease management
• Sub-Module 4: Harvest and post -harvest handling, management and marketing

• Soil: The crop requires a fairly fertile soil which is well drained, clay-loamy soils and a PH of 5.0-8.5
• Rainfall: An annual rainfall of 250-900 mm is adequate for optimal production of sorghum. The crop is resistant to waterlogging
• Altitude: The crop grows well in the range of 500-5500 m
• Temperature: Warm temperatures of between 15-35 ᵒC is ideal for the sorghum’s growth and development.

Pearl millet head (Source: ICRISAT)
Pearl millet is an annual grass in the family Poaceae. Millets are a group of cereals grown in semi-arid regions, capable of withstanding high temperatures and can also escape drought. The grain can be used for food or for brewing and the straws as animal feed.
Ecological requirements
Pearl millet is very adaptable to a wide range of environmental and climatic conditions. It thrives at higher elevations compared to other tropical cereals and tolerates salinity better than most cereals. It grows best in an environment with medium rainfall, about 200-900 mm, an annual temperature range of 15-30 °C and in fertile, well-draining sandy loam soil with a pH between 5-8.5. The crop performs well in an altitude range of 500-2400 m. Areas with low rainfall and low relative humidity during seed ripening and maturation are best for regeneration.

• KAT/PM-1- This is a grey seeded variety that matures between 2-3 months and yields between 8-10 (90 kg) bags per acre
• KAT/PM-2 - A grey seeded variety that matures in 2 months and yield about 7 (90 kg) bags per acre
• KAT/PM-3 - A grey seeded variety that matures between 2-3 months and yields 8-12 (90 kg) bags per Acre
• Katumani -Alt 250-1150, it is a red seeded variety, short and is drought tolerant. It takes 3 months to mature, production 630-900 kg per acre

• The first weeding should be done within 2-3 weeks after emergence and the second weeding is recommended depending on the weed density. Chemical weeding can also be done using pre-emergence herbicides.
• Thinning should be done when the soil is moist to ensure minimal disturbance of the roots of the remaining plants for a healthy growth. Thinning should be done 3 weeks after emergence (at 3- 4 th leaf stage and leave 1 plant per hole. This is best done after first weeding in order to accommodate appropriate plant density adjustments, and leaving two plants adjacent to it compensates for a gap within the row.
• Uproot plants that display abnormal characteristics like being taller than other plants, if the flower colour deviates from the majority of other plants, or grain colour that is different from that of the majority of plants.

• Mbaazi -1, 2 and 3
• Kat 60/8, 81/3/3and 777
• ICPL 89091
• Local Races
• More varieties can be accessed through: KALRO

• Temperature: Pigeon pea does well in a temperature range of between 18-38 ᵒC. The plant cannot withstand frost.
• Rainfall: An annual rainfall range of 600-1000 mm is adequate for the cultivation of this crop. It however flowers well where the rainfall is between 1500-2000 mm. Excessive rainfall during flowering causes flower abortion and increased disease incidences. Dry weather conditions are needed during harvesting
• Soil: The crop thrives in a well-drained soil with an optimal PH of 5-7. It is very sensitive to high salinity and does not tolerate shallow and water logged soils.

• KS20 (uncle: Matures in 80-90 days, pods turn brown when dry while grains are dull green in colour and bigger in size compared to N26
• N26 (nylon): Matures in 60-65 days, pods are black when dry and grains are shiny green in colour
• Karembo: Ndegu tosha and Biashara are the recent introduce by KALRO and marketed by KALRO seed unit
• They are large seeded varieties, early maturing, uniformity in ripening and, do well in dry areas
• Karembo: Matures in 75 days, yield 8-9, 90kg bags per acre
• More varieties of different crops can be accessed through; KALRO

Cowpea seeds and crop (Photo: KALRO cowpea extension manual)
Cowpeas belong to the family Papilionaceae. The crop is of major importance to the livelihoods of local communities people in developing countries. In Africa It is an important agricultural crop because it is source of nutritious food, high quality of animals feed, importance in cropping system, replenishing degraded soils, suppression of weeds, drought tolerant, used as both grains and leaves and source of income. Ecological Requirement Cowpea is adapted to high temperatures ranging between 20-35° C. It does not withstand floods. The crop is fairly tolerant to drought. It requires a rainfall range of 600-1100 mm per annum. Excessive rains lead to delayed ripening and reduced grain yield (Table 2.5). It grows well in a wide range of soil from heavy clay to varying proportions of sand and clay. Cowpeas thrive best in the pH range of 5.5-8.5. The crop can tolerate salinity to some extent but can withstand soils with high aluminium.

• Choice of the proper location and suitable variety
• Arrangement of the orchard; pure stand or where soil is not fertile adopt the spacing of 10 by 10 m, grafted tree is spaced at 8 by 10 m or 10 by 12 m. Mango trees can be grown together with many other plants: as border trees on cultivated gardens, in intercropping within the gardens, in very diverse agroforestry systems or in silvi- pastoral systems (using small animals, such as sheep or goats)
• Planting and management of mango seedlings; Spacing of between 8-12 m2 (ideal situation) or 10*10m (dry zones) or 5*3 m or 5*2.5 m or 3*2.5 m or 2.5*2.5 m (where high-density planting is required). Prepare the planting holes 1 month before planting to allow for seasoning/withering. Depth of hole should be 1 x 1 x 1 m3 (in shallow and hilly soils) or 0.5*0.5*0.5 m (in loamy and deep soils) · Top soil should be separated from the subsoil when digging the holes
• Transplanting and fertiliser management. Mix topsoil with manure and fertiliser as follows: 1 debe of manure per hole (in the ratio of 1 debe manure to 3 debes of topsoil), About 60 g of a compound fertiliser (NPK) e.g. DAP, depending on the fertility of the soiland return the mixture to the hole filling to about 2/3 of the hole

• Improving flowering and fruit formation
• Pegging heavy branches; done on heavily loaded varieties or trees to avoid breaking

• Chemical method: Control weeds in mango orchards by applying herbicide like paraquat (3.0 kg a.i/ha), Diuron as pre-emergent treatment at 6.67 and 8.9 kg/ha. Bromacil and dalapon are herbicides for controlling dicot and monocot weeds respectively
• Biological control. A common practice of grazing livestock in a well grown and established orchard
• Physical Method involves the use of plastic mulch, uprooting or use of hand hoe

• Tendrils near fruit stem have changed colour from green to brown
• Ground spot on the belly of the melon has changed from white to yellow
• The fruits when thumped with the hand produce muffled dull tone (immature fruits produce clear metallic ringing tone)
• Leave the stalk attached to the fruit
• Mature fruits have sweet flavour, crisp texture and deep red colour
• Sugar content (measured as soluble solids by use of hand held refractometer) of 10 % or more in the flesh near the centre of the melon. Yields: 25,000-50,000 kg per acre

• Determinate varieties: are bushy with defined growth and development period. Examples include Yolo Wonder and California Wonder
• Indeterminate varieties: achieve growth through a single apical stem with few secondary branches. Examples Commandant F1, Admiral F1, Nemalite F1, Green Bell F1

• Suitable for home and market gardening
• Fruits are thick walled, 4 lobed, blocky and compact
• Yield: 6,000 kg per acre

• A popular variety for export and local market
• Fruits are shiny dark green, 3-4 lobed, firm and blocky
• It is vigorous, compact and high yielding
• Yield: 6,000 kg per acre

• Grown both in open field and greenhouse
• Resistant to Potato virus, Tomato mosaic and Tobacco mosaic, pepper mild mottle and bacterial spot
• Has long harvesting period: 10 weeks and 4-6 months for open field and greenhouse, respectively
• Fruits can be harvested green (75 days) or red (90 days)
• Yield: 25,000-30,000 kg per acre (open field), 50,000- 60,000 kg per acre (green house)

• Can be grown in open field and greenhouse
• Has similar characteristics to Commandant F1
• Fruits can be harvested green (75 days) or yellow (90 days)
• Yield: 25,000-30,000 kg per acre (open field), 50,000-60,000 kg per acre (green house)

• Use traps like sticky traps
• Conserve natural enemy
• Spray with the recommended pesticide
• Practice Crop rotation and mixed cropping
• Timely weeding and field hygiene
• Routine scouting of the crop field

• Proper site selection
• Growing of certified seeds
• Proper water management
• Spray with the recommended chemical
• Practice good field sanitation
• Practice proper soil fertility management and crop rotation
• Management of the vector

• Determinate
• Fresh market and processing variety
• Plant is slightly bushy and can be staked or left unstaked
• Tolerant to verticillium and fusarium wilt
• Maturity Period: 75-85 days after transplanting
• Yield: 18,000kg per acre

• Determinate early maturing (75 days) variety
• Tolerant to Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus (TYLCV) and nematodes
• It produces fruits with attractive red colour with oval shape and heavy sweet fruits
• Yield: 23,000kg per acre
• Good keeping quality and transportability

• Determinate type Medium - early maturing variety
• Suitable for drier or humid areas
• Disease tolerance: Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus, Tomato Mosaic Virus, Verticillium, Fusarium Wilt and Nematodes
• Fruits: Firm and elongated and has shelf life of 21 days
• Maturity Period: 75 days after transplanting
• Yield: 30,000-35,000 per acre

• Open pollinated determinate variety
• Tolerant to verticillium and fusarium wilts
• The plant produces red blocky shaped fruits
• The fruits store and transport well
• Maturity Period: 75-85 days after transplanting
• Yield: 11,000-13,000 kg per acre

• Determinate and vigorous growing variety
• Good tolerance to Alternaria Canker, Verticillium Wilt, Fusarium Wilt, Nematodes and Bacterial Speck
• Deep red blocky fruits have long shelf life
• Maturity Period: 75 days after transplanting
• Yield: 40,000-50,000 kg per acre (9-10 kg per plant)

• Determinate, vigorous plant with uniformly set and firm fruits
• Tolerance: Bacterial wilt, Bacterial spot, Fusarium wilt, Verticillium wilt and Nematodes
• Maturity 75 days after transplanting
• Yield: 30,000 kg per acre
• Good shelf life and transport quality

• Hybrid and indeterminate fresh market variety that produces blocky oval red fruits that have a long shelf life, tolerance to Fusarium, Verticillium Wilt, ℃℃℃Alternaria Stem Canker and Nematodes
• Ideal greenhouse Tomato
• Maturity Period: 75 days after transplanting
• Yield: 64,000 kg per acre (18 kg per plant for 8 months)

• 0-2000 m
• Over 600 mm annual rainfall in open field
• Day temperatures of 20-25℃ and 15-16 ℃ at night
• Well drained sandy loam and clay loam soils

• The nursery site should be at a place where other solanaceae crops have not been grown before
• A nursery bed should have a width of 1metre and of convenient length
• Drills should be made 10-20 cm apart
• Seeds should be thinly sowed and covered lightly with soil
• The nursery should be watered regularly and the seedlings hardened 1-2 weeks before transplanting
• Insects such as whiteflies can transmit viruses to young tomato plants hence should be controlled using pesticides e.g. Amitraz (Mitac 20EC®), Buprofezin (Applaud 40%SC®), Azadirachtin (Nimbecidine®), Imidacloprid (Confidor 70 WG®)
• These insects can be blocked from reaching the seedlings by use of an insect proof net (agricultural type)

• Seedlings are transplanted 30-45 days after sowing
• Transplanting should be done early in the morning or late in the evening
• The spacing should range from 70-100 cm between the rows and 40-60 cm between seedlings depending on the variety
• Apply 2-3 handfuls of manure per planting hole (8 tons/acre)
• Apply 2 bottle tops (10 g) of Triple Super Phosphate (TSP) per planting hole (80 kg/acre Apply Muriate of Potash (MOP) to enhance availability of potassium

• Training and staking- indeterminate varieties should be staked to facilitate pruning harvesting and other cultural practices. Staking is done using strings and wooden or bamboo stakes
• Determinate varieties could be trained in the wet season or mulched to prevent the fruit from touching soil
• Pruning should be done for the indeterminate varieties extra shoots and flowers should be removed to improve quality, increase tomato size and promote early maturity

• Maturity period ranges between 3-4 months after transplanting depending on: – The variety – Environmental conditions
• Tomato can be harvested at different stages depending on the market requirement and distance to the market
• There are four main harvesting stages: – Mature-Green Stage: where the fruit is green but internal gel is well developed – Breaker/turning Stage: up to 30 % of fruit surface has definite colour break from green to yellow – Pink/Light Red Stage: 30 – 90 % fruit surface has pink/red colour – Red/Ripe Stage: over 90 % fruit surface has changed to red colour
• Fruits should be harvested early in the morning when it is cool since the fruit temperature is low
• Harvested fruits should be kept in a cool, shaded and ventilated area in order to minimize heat gain
• Where necessary, wipe fruits to remove dirt
• The yields vary from 12,000-40,000 kg per acre depending on the variety and crop husbandry

Onion crop (Photo: Farmbiz Africa)
Onion is an important spice crop and it can be eaten raw or cooked. Onion is rich in Calcium, Iron, Potassium, Vitamin B6 and B9, Vitamin E and has medicinal properties

• A popular variety which produces red, flat-round, globular bulbs
• It has very pungent taste
• Matures 150 days after transplanting
• Excelle storage qualities
• Yield Potential: 16,000 kg per acre

• This variety is suitable for dry and warmer conditions
• Produces small to medium sized bulbs, which are globe shaped, Deep purple red colour and very pungent
• Matures 150 days after transplanting
• Yield Potential: 16,000 kg per acre
• Tropicana F1
• Very productive and produces large red, thick flat bulbs with firm pungent taste
• Yield Potential: 25 tons per acre
• Maturures 90-100days after transplanting

• White colour with golden exterior
• The bulbs are relatively larger
• Matures 120 days from transplanting
• Does not have good storage qualities.
• It has mild pungency, which is good for salads
• Yield: 21,000 kg per acre

• Deep red attractive bulbs
• Matures 90 days from transplanting
• Strong pungency
• The variety has a long shelf life of up to 6 months at room temp
• Tolerant to Downy Mildew and Purple Blotch
• Yield: 30 tons per acre

• Onion can be cultivated up to 1,900 m above sea level
• Requires well-distributed rainfall of between 500 and 700 mm during the growing period.
• A dry spell is needed at maturity.

• The optimum temperature for growth is 15-30 °C. If the temperature exceeds 30 °C, maturity is hastened and small bulbs are produced, consequently lowering the yields. When the temperature is low, growth is slowed or the plant may result in flowering. Cold weather is also associated with increased leaf diseases.
• Requires fertile and well-drained soils.
• The optimum pH range is 6.0-6.8. Sandy to silty loams with fine tilth are adequate.

• Prepare beds maximum one metre wide and incorporate well-decomposed compost /FYM 20 kg/m2 and add DAP/TSP 20 g/m2
• Make rows about 15 cm apart, drill the seed thinly in 1cm furrows and cover lightly with soil and mulch
• Germination takes 7-10days

• Seedlings are transplanted 6-8 weeks after sowing or at 3-5 well formed leaves when base is pencil thick
• The seedlings are transplanted in 2.5-3 cm deep trenches at a spacing of 30 cm between rows and 8-10 cm between plants (when using furrow irrigation)
• Apply 80 kg/acre of TSP
• Irrigate field well a day before transplanting
• Carefully pull out the seedlings to avoid damage
• Cut off 50% of the green tops to hasten take off
• When planting onion sets, don’t bury them more than one inch under the soil

• Topdressing can be done in 2 splits
• 1st topdressing: 30 days after transplanting at 40 kg/acre of CAN
• 2nd topdressing: 45 days after transplanting at 80 kg/acre of CAN
• Strip/banding method is preferred over broadcasting as it is more effective
• Too much nitrogen results in thick necks
• Top-dressing should be completed before initiation of bulbing

• Unearthing is removal of excess soil around the bulb/loosening soil to allow the bulb to expand or develop well
• Unearthing can also facilitate the colouring and curing
• If the soil is hard during bulb formation, loosen the soil to allow bulbs to develop well
• Unearthing is carried out during 2nd and subsequent weeding and is done by removal of the soil from the bulbs by hand
• Watch out not to damage or expose the roots

2.3.2 SUB-MODULE 2: SELECTED CROPPING SYSTEMS AND TECHNOLOGIES
Introduction
A cropping system refers to the type and sequence of crops grown and practices used for growing them. It encompasses all cropping sequences practised over space and time based on the available technologies of crop production. Cropping systems are an important part of sustainable agricultural production.
Cropping systems and technologies commonly practised include: organic farming, crop rotation, intercropping and relay cropping.

Organic Farming

Organic agriculture is an integrated production management system which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. It emphasises the use of natural inputs (i.e. minerals and products derived from plants) and the renunciation of synthetic fertilisers and pesticides.

The organic agriculture techniques are known to be ecologically sustainable by:

• Improving soil structure and fertility through the use of crop rotations, organic manure, mulches and the use of fodder legumes for adding nitrogen to the soil fertility cycle.
• Prevention of soil erosion and compaction by protecting the soil, planting mixed and relay crops.
• Promotion of biological diversity through the use of natural pest controls (e.g. biological control, plants with pest control properties) rather than synthetic pesticides which, when misused, are known to kill beneficial organisms (e.g. natural parasites of pests, bees, earthworms), cause pest resistance and often pollute water and land.
• Performing crop rotations, which encourage a diversity of food crops, fodder and under-utilised plants; this, in addition to improving overall farm production and fertility, may assist the on-farm conservation of plant genetic resources.
• Recycling the nutrients by using crop residues (straws, stovers and other non-edible parts) either directly as compost and mulch or through livestock as farmyard manure.
• Using renewable energies, by integration of livestock, tree crops and on farm forestry into the system. This adds income through organic meat, eggs and dairy products, as well as draught animal power. Tree crops and on-farm forestry integrated into the system to provide food, income, fuel and wood.

2.3.2 Sub-Module 2

Conversion to Organic Agriculture
Conversion to organic agriculture describes the process of learning and implementation of changes on the farm towards a more sustainable and natural way of farming. The form the process takes depends on the local circumstances and the predisposition of the farmer or the community, and it varies from farm to farm. The conversion from a conventional to an organic system requires a transitory period, where the organic practices are applied progressively following an organised plan. During this period, it is important to analyse carefully the actual situation of the farm and identify the operation to be taken.
The analysis of the farm must include:

• Farm characteristics: size, plots and crops distribution; kind of crops, trees, animals are integrated in the farm system.
• Soil Analysis: an evaluation of the soil structure, nutrient levels, organic matter content, erosion level, and/or the soil have been contaminated.
• Climate: rainfall distribution and quantity, temperatures, frost risks, humidity.
• Organic matter sources and management (manures).
• Presence of animal housing systems and/ or machinery.
• Limiting factors such as capital, labour, market access, among others.

Processes that aid in the organic agriculture conversion process include:

• Diversify the farming system: Select appropriate annual crops for the area and rotate them in a planned sequence. Include legume crops such as beans or leguminous fodder crops in the rotation to provide nitrogen to the subsequent crops. Plant hedges and flower strips to encourage natural enemies to control pests.
• Start recycling valuable farm by-products: Establish on-farm compost production based on harvest residues and manure, if available, and mix the compost with the topsoil. This will bring stable organic matter into the soil and improve its structure and capacity to feed the plants and store water. Green manures can provide plenty of plant material to feed soil organisms and build up soil fertility.
• Introduce farm animals into the system: Farm animals provide valuable manure and diversify farm income through additional animal products.
• Grow cover crops: Cover crops or lay out mulches in perennial crops provide protection to the soil.

2.3.2 Sub-Module 2

Intercropping
Intercropping is a cropping system that involves growing of two or more crops simultaneously in alternate rows or otherwise in the same area, where there is significant amount of inter crop competition. Intercropping can be done in different ways including:

• Broadcasting the seeds of either crops, or dibbling the seeds without any row arrangement. This is called mixed intercropping. It is easy to do but makes weeding, fertilisation and harvesting difficult. Individual plants may compete with each other because they are too close together.
• Planting the main crop in rows and then broadcasting the seeds of the intercrop (such as a cover crop).
• Planting both the main crop and the intercrop in rows. This is called row intercropping. The rows make weeding and harvesting easier than with mixed intercropping.

A possible problem is that the intercrop may compete with the main crop for light, water and nutrients. This may reduce the yields of both crops.

Relay Cropping
Relay cropping is a method of multiple cropping where one crop is seeded into standing second crop well before harvesting of second crop. Relay cropping is a sustainable approach that optimises system productivity and compensates yield of two crops at a time and can solve time contravention among sowing of different crops.
Relay cropping has still been recognized, especially by smallholder farmers, because of its potential to increase land use efficiency, moisture reduce fertiliser consumption, enhance crop yield and nutrient accumulation, and improve biological activities

Advantages of relay cropping include:

• It possesses the capability to improve soil quality.
• Increases net returns and land equivalent ratio.
• Helps in the control of weed and pest infestation thereby decreasing chemical pest control measures.
• Relay cropping facilitates the farmers to cultivate two crops in 1 year especially in those areas/ cropping systems where the growing season is shrinking for sequential farming due to climate change.
• Environmental benefits associated with relay cropping include improved soil, air, and water quality by reducing the leaching, emanations, and eutrophication of nutrient compounds.

2.3.2 Sub-Module 2

Crop Rotation
Crop rotation means changing the type of crops grown in the field each season or each year. It is a critical feature of all organic cropping systems, because it provides the principal mechanisms for building healthy soils, a major way to control pests, weeds, and to maintain soil organic matter.

Benefits of Crop Rotation
It improves the soil structure:Some crops have strong, deep roots. They can break up hardpans, and tap moisture and nutrients from deep in the soil. Others have many fine, shallow roots. They tap nutrients near the surface and bind the soil. They form many tiny holes so that air and water can get into the soil.
It increases soil fertility: Legumes (such as groundnuts and beans) fix nitrogen in the soil. When their green parts and roots rot, this nitrogen can be used by other crops such as maize. The result is higher, more stable yields, without the need to apply expensive inorganic fertiliser.
It helps control weeds, pests and diseases: Planting the same crop season after season encourages certain weeds, insects and diseases. Planting different crops breaks their life cycle and prevents them from multiplying.
It produces different types of output: Growing a mix of grain, beans, vegetables and fodder means a more varied diet and more types of produce to sell.
It reduces risk: A single crop may fail because of drought. It may be attacked by pests. Or its market price may be low when time comes to sell it. Producing several different crops reduces these risks.

Selecting Crops in Cropping System
Choosing the right crops and crop combinations. Factors to consider when choosing the right crop combinations for a cropping system include;
What does it produce? Crops produce many different things: food, fodder, firewood, fence poles, thatch and medicines. Farmers grow some crops (such as cotton) only for cash. For other crops, such as cereals or vegetables, you may be able to sell what you do not use yourself. Make sure there is a market for the output.
Will it grow well? This depends on many things: the amount of rain or moisture in the soil, the season (some crops and varieties do not grow well at certain times of year), the soil fertility, and so on.
What inputs are needed? How much work does it take to grow the crop? Can you get seed? Do you need other inputs, such as fertiliser or insecticide?
What are the roots like? Tall cereals (millet, maize, and sorghum), finger millets and some legumes (e.g., pigeon pea) have strong roots that penetrate deep into the soil – up to 1.2 m for tall cereals. Their roots improve the soil structure and porosity, so are a good choice if the soil is compacted
Does it improve soil fertility? Legumes improve the soil fertility by fixing nitrogen from the air. They use part of it for their own needs, and leave the rest in the soil. Cereals and other plants can use this nitrogen if they are intercropped with the legume, or if they are grown as the next crop in the rotation.
Does it cover the soil well? Tall cereals do not cover the soil well because they have upright leaves and they are planted far apart. Short grasses (Brachiaria, Andropogon) and many legumes (lablab, groundnut, cowpea, and beans) cover the ground very quickly after they are planted. When their main use is indeed to provide cover, we call them cover crops. If their main use is to provide food, we call them food legumes (beans, groundnuts). Does it work with other crops? Try to find combinations of crops that complement each other well. For example, cereals grow well with legumes (either food legumes or cover crops): the cereals benefit from the nitrogen fixed by the legume. Two different legumes or two different cereals do not usually work well together.

Grouping of Crops in a Crop Rotation Program.
Generally, the crops are grouped based on their feeding habits and their belonging to a crop family eg solanaceae, crucefarae, leguminaceae.
Most vegetable small-scale farmers in Africa distinguish 4 categories of vegetables. These are based on their botanical, but also consider the crops’ nutrient requirements.

• Leaf crops or high feeders: broccoli, cabbages, cauliflowers, kales, spinach, etc.
• Fruit crops or medium feeders: chilies, egg plants, peppers, tomatoes, etc.
• Root crops or low feeders: carrots, beet roots, potatoes, onions, radishes, turnips, etc.
• Legumes: beans, chickpeas, cowpeas, grams, peas, pigeon peas, etc.
• Solanaceae- Tomatoes, potatoes, Bringels
• Brassicaea- Kales, cabbages, carliflower

Kitchen Garden
It is one of the technologies in nitrition sensitive agriculture that involves 3 pathways: diverse own food production, women enpowerment and economic enpowerment to access nutrition food. Kitchet garden entails any conenient size of plot or structure located near homestead, where a variety of crops are grown and small domestic animals reared, mostly for family consumption and for generating income.

Advantages of Kitchen garden include:

• Supply of fresh and adequate fruits and vegetables high in nutritive value
• Supply fruits and vegetables free from toxic chemicals/ safe food
• Help to save expenditure on purchase of vegetables
• Effective utilisation of kitchen waste water and kitchen waste materials
• Exercise to the body and mind
• Empowers women economically to buy, access nutritious foods
• Promotes diverse food own production

Kitchen gardens are best suited at the backyard of house and in open areas with plenty of sunlight near the water source

2.3.2 Sub-Module 2

There are different types of kitchen gardens including:
The wick irrigation garden. This is a simple garden that employs the use of jerry cans and a wick measuring 30cm long and 2cm in width. The wick – much like with a kerosene lamp – draws water up to the soil where the crop is growing. The can is sliced in such a way the lower half holds water in which the wick is dipped and the upper half holds the soil, the plant and the wick. Most medium-sized vegetables like spinach and cabbages would do well in a wick garden. Mounted on a wooden frame, the wick garden would easily fit in any amount of space.
Tyre garden. Do you have used car tyres of any size? If you do, do not worry about how to dispose of them. Cut the tyre to remove the inner rims on both sides. Place it on the ground to form a circle and fill it with soil and manure. The tyre garden can be used to grow herbs like rosemary, fruits like strawberry and vegetables like kales.
Simple drip irrigation garden. With used plastic containers and a wall (or a pole) one can establish a simple drip irrigation garden. The best containers would be 5-litre jerry cans. The cans are cut in such a way they would be easy to fix on the wall or a pole and placed vertically one above another. At the top of the cans, a water- holding container with a hole at the bottom – from which water would drip when the cover is open – is erected and operated.
Micro garden. The micro garden is simple to develop and best suited for city dwellers with nothing much than a balcony to grow food. It involves use of plastic containers like buckets to carry soil and manure. One can hang the buckets from the balcony ceiling or just arrange the buckets on the floor. The micro garden is watered regularly based on the crop’s water needs.
The Multi Storey Garden. This garden uses sacks and nets. One can also improvise with linen shaped like sacks. Holes with diameters measuring about 3cm are cut out and properly spaced on the sack. Soil mixed with manure is then placed in. Ballast (or medium sized stones) is stacked at the centre of the sack to form a midrib through which watering will be done. The sack is pulled up until it is full and upright. Vegetables – especially spinach and green collard (sukuma wiki) -are transplanted from a nursery into the holes on the wall of the sack and a few at the top. Links Reference Link kitchengardens

Further Reading
Recha, J., Kapukha, M., Wekesa, A., Shames, S. and Heiner, K. (2014). Sustainable Agriculture Land Management Practices for Climate Change Mitigation: A training guide for smallholder farmers. Washington, DC. EcoAgriculture Partners.
Mohler, C.L. and Johnson, S.E. (2009). Crop rotation on organic farms: a planning manual. Ithaca, NY: Natural Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service (NRAES) Cooperative Extension.
FAO. (2001). Food and Agriculture Organisation. Mixed crop-livestock farming: A review of traditional technologies based on literature and field experiences. FAO Animal Production and Health Papers pp. 152.
IFOAM. (2003). Training Manual for Organic Agriculture in the Tropics. Edited by Frank Eyhorn, Marlene Heeb, Gilles Weidmann (eds). p 124-129, 149-155, IFOAM BIO
IIRR and ACT. (2005). Conservation agriculture: A manual for farmers and extension workers in Africa. International
Institute of Rural Reconstruction. Nairobi. African Conservation Tillage Network, Harare.

2.3.3 SUB-MODULE 3: INTEGRATED PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT (IPDM)
Introduction
A pest is any organism that competes in any manner, causes injuries and or spreads diseases to the desired plants compromising on the growth and development
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a pest management strategy that uses all the available pest management techniques considering all potential pests of a crop, where pesticides are only applied when it is absolutely necessary (when pest populations are above economic threshold). To be the introductory part, insert just before the principles of IPM
The objective of IPM is to optimize the combined effects of actions associated with the control methods e.g. host resistance, pathogen virulence and environment. For a disease to occur in crops, there must be a susceptible host plant, disease causing pathogen, and the conducive environment for the pathogen to interact with the host plant (e.g long durations of free water on a susceptible plant can increase pathogen infections and disease severity) as demonstrated in the disease triangle below .

Disease triangle- a conception model for interaction between the host, pathogen and environment in disease manifestation

Principles of IPM
IPM is made up of six principles that make pest management sustainable, they include:

• Prevention: This includes practices that prevent the entry and establishment of a pest into a crop area. It includes practices such as field sanitation, and planting certified seeds.
• Identification: Pests their hosts and natural enemies should be identified before any action is taken.
• Monitoring: Monitoring guidelines should be established to ascertain what pests are present and at what populations. scouting regularly for pests and diseases is recommended.
• Action Thresholds: action thresholds for different pests in different crops should be established to prevent economic injury especially in high value crops.
• Implement Control tactics: once the action thresholds have been established the different control tactics can be utilisd in the management of the pest or disease.
• Monitor evaluate and document the results: the results of the management and or control tactic should be documented to evaluate its efficacy and the improvement practices and tactics that can be employed.

The Concept of IPM
A holistic ‘approach’ or ‘strategy’ to combat plant pests and diseases using all available methods, while minimizing applications of chemical pesticides

2.3.3 Sub-Module 3

Benefits of IPM insert after the chemical method explanations:

• Reduces environmental risks associated with pest management and protects non-target species.
• Promotes production of quality and safe food
• Early detection of potential problems as a result of regular crop monitoring.
• Development of a robust cropping system

2.3.3 Sub-Module 3

Designing an IPM Program
When designing an IPM program one needs to ask and answer the following questions:

• What do I know about the pest/s?
• Where am I getting the problem from?
• What practice/s increase or reduce pest on my farm?
• What are the control measures at my disposal?
• What can I do about my planting materials?
• How can I improve biodiversity on my farm?

The major components of IPM in increasing order of complexity are as follows:
Cultural methods. Cultural methods include regular farm operations that either destroy pests or prevent them from causing economic loss. this includes but is not limited to:

• Planting certified seeds
• Roguing infected plants
• Intercropping to improve plant nutrition
• Crop rotation
• Early harvesting
• Early planting

2.3.3 Sub-Module 3

Mechanical/ Physical methods including:

• Removal and destruction of egg masses, larvae, pupa and adults of insect pests and diseased plant parts whenever possible
• Use of insect traps
• Flooding
• Use of pheromones to disrupt mating and for mass trapping
• Use of forceful irrigation water to dislodge insects

2.3.3 Sub-Module 3

Regulatory Practices. These are practices that are enforced by a government regulatory body such as KEPHIS (in the Kenyan context), under which seeds and infested plant materials are not allowed to enter the country or from one part to other parts of the country. These are known as quarantine methods and are of two types i.e. domestic and foreign quarantine.

Biological Methods. Biological methods involve the use of living organisms to control unwanted organisms. Biological pest and disease control is based on the principle that all living organisms have a natural predator that keeps their populations in check. Organisms used in biological control include:

• Parasitoids- organisms that lay eggs on the bodies of their hosts, when the eggs hatch they kill the host for example parasitic wasps in the control of aphids.
• Predators- these are free living organisms that prey on other organisms for food and examples include dragonflies, spiders and lady bird beetles.
• Biopesticides- these are microorganisms that infest the host causing diseases and eventually killing the host. Pathogens used as biopesticides include fungi, viruses, bacteria and some nematodes. Examples of biopesticides commonly used include Beauveria bassiana in the control of termites and whiteflies, Metarhizium anisopliae used in the control of larval stages of insect pest, Trichoderma spp used in the control of soil pathogens.

There are three practices that are used to introduce organisms into an environment under the biological control method:

• Introduction- The bioagent is introduced into a locality for its establishment against its host
• Augmentation- the population of the already present natural enemies in the environment is enhanced by releasing laboratory reared or field collected agents in numbers that would suppress the pest or disease
• Conservation- the natural enemies within the environment are protected from being killed through practices like not spraying broad spectrum chemicals that could reduce their populations

Chemical Methods. In IPM use of chemicals is considered as the last resort when all other methods of pest management have failed to keep the pest populations below economic threshold levels. Use of pesticides should be need based, judicious, based on pest surveillance to minimize not only the cost involved, but also reduce associated problems. While going for chemical control, we must understand thoroughly what to spray, when to spray, where to spray and how to spray.

2.3.4 SUB-MODULE 4: SAFE USE OF PESTICIDE
Introduction
Pesticides are hazardous and toxic to pests, humans and the environment. Therefore, Suitable and proper precautionary measures before, during and after pesticides use will guarantee safety of the ecosystem. Pesticides will cause adverse effects if intentionally or accidentally ingested, when they come in contact with the skin or inhaled. Other risks include contamination of drinking-water, food, soil and burning and/or scorching of plants. Special precautions must therefore be taken during transport, storage and handling. Spray equipment should be regularly cleaned and maintained to prevent leakage and spillage of pesticides. In general, all personnel working with pesticides should have proper training on safe use and first aid skills.

Standard Operating Procedures (SOP)
Creating awareness before control. Pest and pesticide management are very important factors for safe agricultural products for human consumption as well as maintaining the natural environment. Pesticides used in the management of Desert Locusts in general is always of concern to the human health, wildlife and the environment, therefore, there is need for involvement of the surrounding communities in the control program through sensitization (community Baraza’s and Meeting) and planning for the control operations. The approach will ensure total participation and compliance during desert locust control period while safeguarding other non-targeted organisms and the environment. There is a need for joint efforts by the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development (MoA&LD) through the Plant Protection Services Division and other players in the management of desert locust.

Transportation and Storage Pesticides. Plant, Protection and Food Safety Directorate (PP&FSD) will be in charge of procurement, storage and transportation of pesticides for the management of trans boundary and migratory pests like desert locusts. Pesticide movement from the central store to the regional areas of control to be done by PP&FSD under the prescribed rules. This will ensure NEMA compliance through minimising and/ or eliminating exposure of hazardous chemicals to the environment and ecosystem during transportation and storage.

Control operations. For the control operation to be effective, efficient and adhere to the safety measures/standards to the environment, the following factors must be in place:

• Target pest
• The behaviour, biology and ecology of the pest will determine the type of chemical for use, the time, place and stage to institute the control and finally the threshold level to warrant the control.
• Selected Pesticide
• Toxicity level and effects to the environment, Targeted pest, efficiency and effectiveness of action, trade name, Registration number and manufacturer information.
• Control expertise and equipment
• Control and handling of pesticides to be done by qualified and trained personnel. Since desert locust information and management is controlled at the MoA&LD all the control operation for trans boundary pests, therefore, to be coordinated by the PP&FSD.
• Post-spray assessment
• The aim of post-assessment is to check on the efficacy of the Pesticide and the Impact on the surrounding environment. The information obtained to be used in making conclusion, recommendation or advice the subsequent decisions and policies for the country.
• Method of disposal of unused Pesticide and pesticide containers
• In a well-planned spraying operation the amount of pesticide solution required for the job should have been worked out carefully so that there is little or no pesticide left over.

Pesticides are poisonous and it is bad for the environment and dangerous to people and other animals when exposed. This means that preparing too much spray is a waste of money and effort because the pesticide will not be effective if it is used later. Therefore, an adequate amount needs to be prepared for a single operation program.

Disposal of Unused Pesticide
If there is any pesticide left over at the end of a spraying operation then it is important that it be disposed off correctly. This means getting rid of the chemical so that it has no harmful effect on the environment, including people and their pets. If it is not possible to use up all the mixed pesticide and spraying is going to take place the next day then use any leftover pesticide on that job. However if no more spraying is planned then the following procedure will apply.

• Choose a place well away from community buildings and meeting/play areas, any streams, water supply areas, or low-lying areas where water may collect or there may be a high water table. Near the storage shed or at the soak pit may be appropriate.
• Dig a hole 50 cm deep.
• Cover the bottom of the pit with a 25 to 40 mm layer of hydrated lime.
• Pour the unwanted pesticide into the hole.
• Cover with soil.

Disposal of Empty Pesticide Containers

• The lids of all containers should be removed before disposal.
• Glass or plastic containers must be buried deep in an isolated area away from water supplies. If it is safe to do so, it is a good idea to break glass containers before disposal. Plastic containers must be punched with holes so that they cannot be used to carry water.
• Glass or plastic pesticide containers which cannot be broken or punched with holes must never be left around in case people use them for some other purpose.
• Metal containers should be made unusable by punching holes in the top and bottom and then crushing it. Flattened containers are easier to bury or dispose of at the pit. Drum crushers for pesticide containers should be located at different regions.
• Never burn pesticide containers because they may give off poisonous gases. Never use these containers or any Pesticide treated materials, such as wood on fire. A summary of the Standard Operating procedures (SOPs) for safe use of pesticide in the control of Desert locusts is provided

Safety Measures for Handling Pesticide/Chemical
Pesticide products can pose risk to humans, animals and the environment. Before choosing and purchasing a pesticide, it is important to read and understand the directions on the label. These information include:

• Brand or trade name.
• Type of pesticide.
• Active, inert ingredients and formulation.
• Net content.
• Registration Number.
• Transportation and storage.
• Mode of action.
• Classification Number.
• Date of manufacture and expiry.
• Precautionary statement.
• Do not carry pesticides in a vehicle used to transport food.
• Pesticides in drums must be put on a cushioned surface in the vehicle during loading and before transportation to avoid friction.
• Pesticides must not be filled to the brim in the packaging containers to avoid spillage and leakage.
• Pesticides should never be kept in a place where they might be mistaken for food or drink.
• Pesticides and pesticide containers should be kept in a separate building or room or in an enclosed area
• Pesticide stores must be dry, well ventilated and under key and lock mode not accessible to unauthorised people or children.
• If pesticides are in drums or carton boxes, they should be put on pallets or raised above the ground surface.
• The storage area must be used exclusively for pesticides and empty pesticide containers.
• Outside storage area should have a strong fence, if the pesticide is stored in bulk.
• Spraying and Sprayer equipment.
• Determine the method of spraying.
• Choose the sprayer equipment for use.
• Calibrate the sprayer equipment to determine the efficiency and effectiveness.

The operator should wear protective clothing before spraying. These include:

• Gloves: to protect the hands and wrist
• Boots: it should be worn above the ankle-height and Made of unlined light -weight rubber. They should be washed inside and outside immediately after use or regularly.
• Overalls with wide trouser legs to be worn outside the boots to avoid drainage of pesticides into the boots.
• Goggles: to avoid chemical drifts to get into contact with the eye
• Head cover: for covering the head. Avoid head covers made from absorbent materials.
• Respirators with disposable cotton mesh to protect mouth and nose

During pesticide use:

• Use when necessary
• Use the right pesticide for the right pest at the recommended Mix (based on the label of manufacturer’s manual).
• Wind direction and speed
• Do not spray in the opposite or against wind direction.
• Always spray when the weather is calm, preferably, in the morning hours or evening hours.
• Operator/Equipment spraying speed
• Remove only the amount of pesticides needed for one’s day operation.
• Fill the spraying equipment to the required level and ensure there are no leakage and spillage.
• Move at a constant speed as determined by the calibration and the spraying pattern.
• Keep the pesticide to its original container.

After pesticide use

• Chemical and the containers
• Empty any insecticide remaining in the spray tank back into the original pesticide container.
• Careful disposal of empty containers and surplus pesticides. The containers should never be used or converted for feeding or water troughs since they are hazardous to humans, animals and the environment. Therefore the responsibility of pesticide users continues until all empty pesticide containers and surplus pesticides are disposed of safely and properly.
• Sprayer Cleaned, greasing movable parts and tightening the loose nuts

The operator

• Wash protective clothing immediately after use.
• Drying the PPE under the sun in the open.
• Checking the torn parts of the protective gears and repairing them.
• Proper Washing of the body specially, hand, face and legs with soap and clean running water.
• Safe and proper disposal of the empty containers and surplus pesticides.
• Safe custody of the spraying equipment and other materials.
• Store
• Properly cleaned in case of chemical spillage and leakage.
• Ensure the room is well ventilated
• The principle rule is, the pesticide store to be always under key and lock mode

Emergency Measures
Poisonings are usually acute that results from extensive skin contact or ingestion. Signs and symptoms vary with the type of pesticide and can sometimes be confused with those of other illnesses or abnormalities. Indications of pesticide poisoning include:

• General: Extreme weakness and fatigue.
• Skin: Irritation, burning sensation, excessive sweating, staining.
• Eyes: Itching, burning sensation, watering eyes, difficult or blurred vision, narrowed or widened pupils.
• Digestive system: Burning sensation in mouth and throat, excessive salivation, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhoea.
• Nervous system: Headaches, dizziness, confusion, restlessness, muscle twitching, staggering gait, slurred speech, fits unconsciousness.
• Respiratory system: Cough chest pain and tightness, difficulty with breathing and sneezing.

Pesticide poisoning should be reported as first as possible and the first aid measures be given immediately to the victim before seeking medical advice and help at the earliest time possible. If the patient is within the proximity of the medical facility, s/he should be rushed immediately or call the ambulance and the doctor immediately. Ensure the pesticide container or the sample is also availed to the doctor.
First Aid Measures. It is the initial assistance given to a victim while medical help is on the way. The first step is to call an ambulance or a doctor while ensuring that the victim is breathing and is not further exposed to pesticides.
Pesticide on the Skin. Wash the skin immediately with soap and water. If no water is available, wipe the skin gently with a piece of cloth or paper to soak up the pesticide. Avoid rubbing or scrubbing. Remove contaminated clothing immediately and wash underlying skin. Clean pesticides from the skin. Remove the patient from the contaminated area.
Pesticide in the eye. Wash the eyes thoroughly for about 10 minutes with clean water. Where eye irritation is severe, send the patient to a doctor.
Inhaled Pesticide. This may occur when working with pesticides as gaseous, vapour or dust in closed areas or atomized particles blown by wind. Remove patient from work and loosen clothing around throat and chest
Ingested Pesticide. People who have accidentally ingested pesticide must be treated by a doctor immediately. Meanwhile, keep the patient calm and comfortable and protect him from heat and cold.
If breathing has stopped:

• Give artificial respiration. If no insecticide has been swallowed, mouth-to-mouth resuscitation may be given.
• Pull the patient’s chin up and tilt the head back with one hand to keep the airway clear. Place the other hand on the patient’s forehead, with the thumb and index finger toward the nose.
• Pinch together the patient’s nostrils with the thumb and index finger to prevent air from escaping.
• Take a deep breath, and then form a tight seal with your mouth over and around the patient’s mouth.
• Blow four quick, full breaths in first without allowing the lungs to deflate fully.
• Watch the patient’s chest while inflating the lungs. If adequate respiration is taking place, the chest should rise and fall.
• Remove your mouth and allow the patient to breathe out.
• Take another deep breath, form a tight seal around the patient’s mouth, and blow into the mouth again.
• Repeat this procedure 10–12 times a minute (once every five seconds).

General Care for the Patient. Make the patient lie down and rest because poisoning with organophosphorus and carbamate compounds is made worse by movement. Place the patient on her or his side with the head lower than the body. If the patient is unconscious, pull the chin forward and the head back to ensure a clear airway. Cover the patient with a blanket if he or she feels cold, and cool the patient by sponging with cold water if excessive sweating occurs. If the patient vomits spontaneously, ensure that he or she does not inhale the vomit. In the event of convulsions, put padded material between the teeth to avoid injury.

Further reading
FAO. (2014). Food and Agriculture Organisation. Evaluation of field trials data on the efficacy and selectivity of insecticides on locusts and grasshoppers. Report to FAO by the Pesticide Referee Group, 10th meeting. Gammarth, Tunisia.
FAO/WHO. (2012). 6th Report of FAO/WHO Joint Meeting on Pesticide Management and 8th Session of the FAO Panel of Experts on Pesticide Management, 9-12 October 2012.

2.4 MODULE 4
LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

Realization of optimal production from livestock depends on careful balancing of husbandry practices. These include the choice of the species, creating enabling handling facilities and adapting appropriate routine management practices. In terms of productivity, the genetic potential contributes up to 30% of the output. The rest 70% depends on other attributes of which feeds, feeding management and health care are the most important under Kenyan livestock production systems. This module covers some important considerations for realization of optimal productivity from farm ruminants. It considers 11 sub-modules.

2.4.1 SUB-MODULE 1: LIVESTOCK BREEDS
CHARACTERISTICS

Livestock breeds and breed characteristics
There are five exotic dairy cattle breeds commonly reared. These were initially imported from Europe but overtime have been adapted to the local environment and through crossing contain some local blood of Zebu ecotypes. These are mainly used to produce milk under various production systems ranging from intensive zero grazing, semi- intensive and the extensive dairy production systems. The common breed types are Friesian, Ayrshire, Guernsey and Jersey which are mainly kept in the highlands of Kenya but through crossing and adaptation some of these breeds have been pushed to the semi-arid areas where they are used for milk production.

Common dairy cattle breeds in Kenya
Friesian dairy cattle
Physical description: Coat colour predominantly black and white with a characteristic white triangular patch on the forehead and white socks from the knee joint to the hooves. (Table 2.17)

Table 2.17. Friesian breed characteristic

Friesian cattle

Ayrshire dairy cattle
Physical description: Coat colour brown and white patches in almost equal amounts with some cows tending to dark mahogany colour (Table 2.18).
Table 2.18. Ayrshire dairy breed characteristics

Mature Kenyan Ayrshire cows at an exhibition

Guernsey dairy breed
Physical description: Coat color Fawn brown to yellow to reddish-brown with white patches (Table 2.19).
Table 2.19. Guernsy dairy breed characteristics

Mature Guernsey cow

Jersey dairy cattle
Table 2.20 presents the characteristics of Jersey dairy cattle
Table 2.20. Jersey dairy breed characteristics

Physical description	Coat colour	Kenyan Jersey are typically light brown in colour, though this can range from being almost grey to dull black
	Coat hair	Shinny short and fine
	Pigmentation	Black nose and almost white muzzle
	Height at withers	1.3-1.5m
	Horns	Mostly short-horned
	Shape of ears	Horizontal and straight
	Face	Concave with protruding eyes
Production	Milk	305 MY from 2,000-4,000kg Daily MY 10-15 kg Fat from 5.0-6.5% Protein from 3.8-4.5%
	Weight and height	Mature live weight of 250 - 350 and 350 - 400kg females and males respectively Weaning weight: 50-90kgs
Reproduction	Fertility	Above 85%
	Age at attaining mature weight	14-18 months
	Age at first A.I service	12-18 months
	Age at first calving	21-27 months
	Calving interval	12-18 months
	Number of parities	10-15

Mature Kenyan Jersey cow

Beef cattle breeds
There are several beef breed types comprising of crosses of local beef ecotypes with the exotics and there are locally adapted cattle produced from the pastoral production system. Most of the crosses are eventually finished through feedloting while some locally improved breed types are produced from the ranching production system. Surplus dairy male cattle also end up in the beef value chain. Some of the indigenous crosses of Boran, Sahiwal, and East African Zebu have been crossed with Friesian, Angus, Ayrshire and Charolaise to produce terminal beef crosses for finishing in the feedlot. The Boran comprises of the improved Boran, Orma Boran and the North Frontier District (NFD) Boran which is native to northern Kenya and Southern Ethiopia and from which the improved Kenya Boran that was developed and is a prime beef breed for the region. The Sahiwal which originally came from Pakistan has been adapted as a dual purpose animal that produces substantive amount of milk during the dry season and also produces good quality meat. The key improved beef breeds improved are presented in Tables 2.21-2.26
Kenya Boran
Table 2.21. Kenya Boran breed characteristics

Boran cattle

Kenyan Sahiwal
Table 2.22 presents the characteristics of the Kenyan Sahiwal. This is a dual purpose breed that produces moderate amount of milk and has beef conformation. It is quite resistant to some ecto-parasites and thrives well and dried hay.
Table 2.22. Kenya Boran Breed Characteristics

Table 2.23. Kenyan Sahiwa breed characteristics

Indigenous cattle breeds (Small East African Zebu)
Indigenous cattle population in Kenya is dominated by short-horned zebu types with thoracic hump. These cattle are distributed throughout the country and have developed adaptive features and characteristics through selection under varied environmental conditions. The Small East African Zebu (SEAZ) which are believed to have originated from Asia, are further categorized in various groups mainly based on communities that keep them as well as the geographical location and or production environments in which they are found. They are mostly found in pastoral communities within low input production systems and are of varied coloration and morphology due to the broad environmental adaptation. Among some of the common examples are the Maasai, Kamba, Kikuyu, Taita, Nandi, Turkana, Teso, Kavirondo and Jidu Zebu amongst others. However, most of these traditional ecotypes have become extinct due to extensive cross breeding with exotics and only traces of their crosses are commonly found. Common breed characteristics are as represented below.

Maasai Zebu
Maasai Zebu is predominantly found in southern Kenya extending to north-east Tanzania with close association with the Maasai community. Comparatively, it is the largest of all SEAZ types. It is mainly kept for milk and only slaughtered during special social ceremonies. Table 2,23 presents the characteristics of this zebu.
Table 2.23. Maasai Zebu breed characteristics

2.4.1 Sub-Module 1

Kamasia/Samburu Zebu
Kamasia Zebu is predominantly found in central Kenya plains within Samburu County. It has long been kept by the Samburu community. Few populations are also found in Laikipia and Baringo Counties. It has a cervical-thoracic hump. Tolerant to tick-borne diseases, drought and can walk long distances in search of water and pasture. Mainly kept for milk and meat. Thable 2.24 presents the characteristics of this cattle.
Table 2.24. Kamasia/ Samburu Zebu breed characteristics

Winam or Kavirondo Zebu
Winam Zebu is mainly found in western Kenya in the lowlands of the Lake Victoria basin, kept by the Luo and Luhya communities. It is comparatively the smallest of all SEAZ with varied horn shapes, sizes and orientation (Table 2.25). There is a notable variance in hump size and position. It is tolerant to tick-borne diseases and helminthes and kept mainly for draft (tillage), milk and cultural use e.g. in ceremonies.
Table 2.25. Winam or Kavirondo Zebu breed characteristics

Nandi Zebu
Nandi Zebu is predominantly found in north rift region, with the Nandi community. The breed is endangered due breed replacement, upgrading and crossbreeding. It is small in size and fine-boned. It has a thoracic hump varying in size and shape with round front and back. The hump is prominent in bulls and hangs backwards. The Nandi Zebu is the dairy type of the SEAZ, comparatively producing more milk than other zebu types. It has moderately developed udders with small closely placed teats.
Table 2.26. Nandi Zebu breed characteristics

Feedlots in Kenya
Predominantly, beef farming in Kenya is pasture fed on communal lands and private ranches. New challenges of climate change and rising costs of commercial feed require modern solutions of raising and selling cattle for beef. They include raising premium beef cattle on small farms or cattle finishing and fattening in feedlots as well as value addition of beef products.
In beef, the industry there is need for an adequate fat cover on the carcass which is essential for successful marketing of beef. Cattle produced in the rangelands are normally undernourished resulting in lean meat. Good beef requires to have a fat content of at least 9% to produce well-marbled beef that can also qualify for canning.
It is well known that there are two factors which affect the amount of fat in carcass: the level of nutrition and the age of the animal. At a low level of nutrition, an animal grows only bone and muscle. However, after maturity, when growth stops, fat may be laid down. When fat is laid down at this stage of maturity it tends to be an energy store and it grows in large blobs over the back and in the pelvic channel. With a sufficiently high levels of nutrition, however, a young animal can be induced to lay down fat as well as to grow. When this happens the distribution of fat is much more even: it lies as a thin envelope over the entire carcass — which is just what the export market requires. Thus, the whole rationale of the feedlot system is a method of preparing the live animal produced from the range so that at slaughter, its carcass has the correct quality specifications to meet market requirements.
The production of beef then becomes a three-stage process of calf production, growth and finishing. Finishing in a feedlot instead of on the pasture allows for specialization in calf production and in growth on the range. The ease with which ranchers can finish cattle on the range depends upon the type of range, the quality of forage and the stocking rate used. Most cattle finishing programs in Kenya are mainly finished in three or four months when they are fed high concentrate diets comprising protein and energy while confined (feedlot) so as not to lose energy while walking long distances.

Feedlot finishing of pastoral cattle
Trials carried out in Kenya by the Beef Industry Development Project showed that all of the cattle breeds and crossbreds available in Kenya responded well to feedlot finishing. The common breeds for feedlot finishing are the Boran and the indigenous Zebu ecotypes together with their crosses with exotic breeds.

Molasses being sprayed onto the feed concentrate at the feedlot

Because of disease control limitations, cattle are brought into the feedlots after being tested and treated for diseases and vaccinated e.g. against foot-and-mouth disease. They are quarantined for one month before they are transferred to the feedlot for final finishing for 3 months while on high quality ration. The steers can gain one kilogramme daily and also begin to finish by laying down a layer of fat. As explained earlier, this increases the market value of the meat. It is this increase in grade and the live-weight gain of the animals which makes the feedlot an economic undertaking. Using unimproved pastoral cattle on the range, it is possible to profitably increase the yield of edible carcass from one animal by between 30 and 50% in the feedlot.

Results Obtained in the Feedlot
Some observations to define the input/output relationships of feeding beef cattle under commercial conditions, which involves characterizing the response of the various breeds tested under Kenyan conditions are as follows:

• Improved Boran (from commercial ranches)
• Large crossbreds (e.g., Friesians, Simmental or Charolais × Boran)
• Small crossbreds (e.g., Hereford or Angus × Boran)
• Unimproved (or North Eastern Province) Boran

Trials were done to characterize the responses of these cattle to different rations and feeding periods, and to determine what type of ration and for how long each class of steer should be fed.
The broad design of the was as follows:
4 Breeds - as mentioned above
×
2 Rations - high energy/high roughage
×
2 Periods - 10 weeks/16 weeks
Thus 50 head of each of the four breeds were fed on a high energy ration and 50 head on a high roughage ration.
After 10 weeks, half of each group was slaughtered and the remaining half continued on feed for a further 6 weeks.
The first of the trials included Friesian × Boran and Hereford or Red Poll × Boran were taken as representative of a large and a small crossbred, respectively (Table X). The following rations were used:
High energy - 67% concentrate/ 33% roughage
High roughage - 33% concentrate/ 67% roughage

Improved Boran steer after 70 days’ feeding

What do these results mean to the beef producer in Kenya?

PERCENT OF RATION COMPOSITION (ON A 100 PERCENT DRY MATTER BASIS)

Perhaps one of the most interesting aspects of the results was the performance of the various breeds and crosses. The indigenous Boran appears ideally suited to finishing because its turnover was rapid and the total quantity of maize needed to finish an animal was relatively small. On the other hand, the crossbred do give better carcass when there is grain surplus - when feed costs are cheap- they would become comparatively more attractive to finish than the Boran. It is predictable that the crossbreds will become more important in the future; but for today the cattle which are present in the greatest numbers, and which are fully adapted to the conditions of the country, form the best basis for starting cattle feedlot industry.

Meat Goats
Small East African Goat
Small East African goat (SEAG) is a diverse group of goats (Tables 2.27-2.32) with variable type, conformation and size of body. It is distributed throughout a wide and diverse range of environments in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and southwards through central Africa as far as Zaire, Angola and the north of Namibia. It is adapted to ASALs. The SEAG is known by different local names e.g. East African Dwarf, Sebei, Karamoja, Tanzania, and Zambian types. The breed group belongs to the group of short-eared and small-horned goats. They are hardy animals generally used for meat rather than milk. Table 2,27 presents the general characteristics of SEAG.

Small East African Goat

Table 2.27. Small East African Goat breed characteristics

2.4.1 Sub-Module 1

Galla Goat
The Galla goat originated from Arabia and it is widely distributed in ASALs of Kenya, Ethiopia, Djibout, Eritrea and Somalia. It is mostly reared by Somali, Borana, Rendille, Gabra, and Oromia communities under extensive and semi- intensive pastoral to agro-pastoral, production system. This goat inhibits wide and diverse range of environments. Galla goat is utilized by these communities for milk, meat, skin, manure, socio-cultural/ collateral uses. In the regions where it is reared it is also known by other names such as Larger-White-Somali, Digodi, Marebo, Boran Somali, Benadir and Gigwain. The breed has two sub-types known as Degyir and Degeun. Degyir. Degeun are coloured around the head and lower legs with a black stripe along the spine. This is a meat goat but there are some milk variants that produce milk under pastoral production systems. Table 2.28 summarises the characteristics of this type of goats.

Table 2.28. Galla Goat breed characteristics

Galla goat

Boer Goat
This is a medium sized breed for meat. It is characterized by white body and red head and neck. White patches can be found on the forehead, face and ridge of the nose. Completely white or red Boer are not un-common. It is a native of South Africa and the name Boer means farmer in Afrikaan. Boer goats have large drooping ears and the muzzle resembles that one of sheep. Its fast growth rate, high meat proportion to body weight, high fertility and adaptability to diverse environments makes them popular and it is widespread to other countries apart from South Africa including; Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Kenya, India and America. It is reared in semi-intensive and extensive livestock systems. Table 2.29 presents the characteristics of this type of goat.

DAIRY GOATS
Alpine Goat
Alpine is a medium sized dairy goat. It originated from France and spread to the rest of the world. It is a popular dairy goat in Kenya due to its high milk production and adaptability to different climatic conditions. The breed is reared under intensive and sem-i intensive production system.
The breed was introduced in Kenya from Germany in the early 1980s in Nyeri, Murang’a, Kirinyaga, Embu and Kiambu. In Nakuru County, they are reared by farmers under the umbrella of Nakuru Sheep and Goats Breeders Association. After several years of breeding, a Kenya Alpine has been registered. Table 2.30 presents its key features.

Table 2.30. Alpine Goat breed characteristics

	Variable	Expression/ value
Physical description	Coat color	Mainly gray, brown or black
	Coat hair	Short, fine and smooth with pronounced mane at the back
	Skin pigment	Black
	Height at withers: buck	80-90
	Height at withers: ewes	70-76
	Horns	Horned or polled
	Shape of ears	Erect and medium
Production	Birth weight kg	2.0-3.5
	Weaning weight	15.0-18.0
	Body weight at 12 months	28.0-32.0
	Weight of mature does	50-60kg
	Weight of mature buck	70-76
	Milk yield per day	2.5-4 litres
Reproduction	Age of doe at first kidding	18-24 months

Saanen Goat
Saanen is a large dairy goat which originated from Germany and is spread in many countries. It is mainly found in highlands under intensive and semi intensive systems. The breed has been extensively crossbred with other dairy goats due its high milk production. The breed is prone to photo sensitivity and therefore it is not wide spread in the country. Table 2.31 summarises its key characteristics.

Saanen goat
Table 2.31. Saanen Goat breed characteristics

	Variable	Expression/ value
Physical description	Coat colour	White or cream
	Coat hair	Short, fine and smooth
	Skin pigment	Pink
	Height at withers buck (cm)	81-92
	Doe	74-80
	Shape of ears	Erect and point upwards
	Horns	Horned or polled
Production	Birth weight
	Weaning weight
	Body weight at 12 months
	Weight of mature does	50-70kg
	Weight of mature buck	70-100 kg
	Milk yield per day	3-5 ltrs
Reproduction	Age of doe at first kidding	20 months

Toggenburg Goat

The breed originated from Switzerland and spread to the rest of the world. It’s suited to Kenya highlands where heat stress is not a problem and fodder is of good quality. The breed is reared under both intensive and semi intensive systems. Toggenburg goats have proved to be well adapted and large flocks are found in agro-pastoral areas of Kenya. Toggenburg goats are reared in large numbers in the following counties where it is currently promoted by breed associations after it was introduced by Farm-Africa in 1996; Meru (Meru Dairy Goat Breeders Association), Tharaka- Nithi (Tharaka Nithi Dairy Goat Breeders Association), Kitui ( Kitui Mwingi Dairy Goats Breeders Association) and Makueni (Utheu wa Aka Women SHG, Kibwezi). In Nakuru County Toggenburg goats are also reared in some good numbers by farmers who formed Nakuru Sheep and Goats Breeders Association. Table 2.32 summarises the key attributes of this type of goat.
Toggenburg Goat breed characteristics

2.4.1 Sub-Module 1

INDIGENOUS SHEEP BREEDS
Somali sheep
The Somali sheep is a hairy sheep native to Somalia. The Somali sheep is the direct forebear of the Blackhead Persian. It is white with a black head. It belongs to the fat-tail type, and both of the breed’s sexes are polled. They are mainly reared for meat, are fat ramped and mainly found in Somali, North Eastern Kenya and Sudan. They are hardy; the skin quality is higher than other indigenous hair sheep and is important for mutton production. This breed thrives well under harsh environmental conditions and has high potential for meat production. The breed characteristics are given in Table 2.33.

Blackheaded Somali
Table 2.33. Blackheaded Somali breed characteristics

Blackhead Persian
The Blackhead Persian sheep has its origins in the Blackheaded Somali. The breed was developed in South Africa and was a cross between the Somali sheep and the South African Boer sheep for the drier areas of South Africa but has spread to other parts of southern Africa and farther north, notably to Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia and even toGhana. It has also been introduced for crossbreeding purposes to the West Indies, and to Central and South America.
This breed is popular in the arid and semi-arid areas due to its hardiness and resilience. It is used for meat and fat (for cooking). It is mostly reared under extensive system by pastoral communities in the marginal areas of the country. Table 2.34 presents the key characteristics of this sheep.

Blackhead Persian
Table 2.34. Blackhead Persian breed characteristics

	Variable	Expression/ value
Physical description	Coat color	White body and black head and neck
	Coat hair/wool	Short smooth kemp
	Skin pigmentation	Black
	Height at withers	Ram
		Ewe
	Shape of ears	Long and pendulous
	Horns	Polled
Production	Birth weight	2.4 – 2.7 kg
	Weaning weight	12.5 kg
	Body weight at 12 months	Ram 32 kg
		Ewe 28.1 kg
	Weight of mature ram	68 – 70 kg
	Weight of mature ewe	50 - 52 kg
	Lactation period	84 days (Av. Yield 50 kg milk, 5.9 % fat)
	Consumable meat (%) (Consumable meat output as a percentage of live weight at slaughter	45 - 48
Reproduction	Age of ewe at first lambing	18 – 24 months
	Age at puberty	Male Females
	Lambing interval	6 – 15 months
	Lambing %	60- 90
	Fertility rate %	70.6
	Fecundity % (Lambs born/ Ewe present p.a)	61
	Reproductive live span
	Life time lamb	3.16
	Twining rate %	6.3

Merino Sheep
The Merino sheep is a native of Spain but it originated from sheep of Asia Minor through North Africa and has since spread to many parts of Africa including Kenya and is suited to medium and high altitudes under ranching and agro-pastoral management systems. The breed is adapted to high rainfall grassland regions and is reported to be less susceptible to fly strike because of their smooth body in comparison to sheep with skin folds.
It is found in the highlands under intensive and semi intensive condition. It is hardy and has excellent mothering ability. It is a medium breed kept for meat and wool. Table 2.35 presents its key characteristics.

Merino
Table 2.35. Merino breed characteristics

Red Maasai
The Red Maasai is an East African fat-tailed sheep characterized by short reddish brown to almost black course hair. They are sheep of the semi-arid regions of Kenya and Tanzania, especially in Kajiado, Narok, Laikipia, Samburu and West Pokot Counties of Kenya and in Tanzania in Longido and Ngorogoro Districts in Arusha Region. Table 2.36 summarises its key characteristics.


Red Maasai
Table 2.36. Red Maasai breed characteristics

	Variable	Expression/ value
Physical description	Coat color	Red or black sometimes with white markings
	Coat hair/wool	Mottled or greasy hair
	Skin pigmentation
	Height at withers	Ram 72 - 80cm
		Ewe 58 - 66cm
	Shape of ears	Long often drooping at an angle
	Horns	Male has twisted horns, females often lack horns
Production	Birth weight	2-3kg
	Lambing Interval	340 days
	Lambing rate %	80 – 84
	Weaning weight	15-20kg
	Av. DWG	128gm
	Body weight at 12 months	Ram 35-40
		Ewe 25-30
	Weight of mature ram	58-80kg
	Weight of mature ewe	45-70kg
	Consumable meat (%) (Consumable meat output as a percentage of live weight at slaughter	??
	Milk yield per day	300ml
Reproduction	Age of ewe at first lambing	15 – 18 months
	Weaning rate	97%

Dorper
The Dorper sheep is a composite breed of South Africa developed at Grootfontein in 1940-1950 with good mutton qualities. It was developed through the crossing of the Blackhead Persian ewes with the Dorset Horn rams. The Dorper sheep thrive in arid to semi-tropical climate and are suitable for areas with rainfall of only 100 to 760 mm. The breed has been exported to many countries throughout the world including Namibia, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Kenya, Mauritius, Malawi, Burundi, Israel, Saudi Arabia, and Australia. Table 2.37 summarises the key characteristics of this nd of sheep. The Dorper sheep is a composite breed of South Africa developed at Grootfontein in 1940-1950 with good mutton qualities. It was developed through the crossing of the Blackhead Persian ewes with the Dorset Horn rams. The Dorper sheep thrive in arid to semi-tropical climate and are suitable for areas with rainfall of only 100 to 760 mm. The breed has been exported to many countries throughout the world including Namibia, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Kenya, Mauritius, Malawi, Burundi, Israel, Saudi Arabia, and Australia. Table 2.37 summarises the key characteristics of this and of sheep.

Dorper
Table 2.37. Dorper breed characteristics

CAMELS
There are two main types of camels namely, the Bactrian camel (2 humps) and the Dromedary (one-humped) mainly found in the cold deserts of China and Mongolia, and hot deserts of Africa and the Middle East, respectively. They are mainly used for food by providing milk and meat and transport as a beast of burden. Camels can live for 40 years, but the productive lifespan is between 20 and 30 years. Different camel breeds are traditionally named after the ethnic communities who own and keep them. These are Somali, Rendille/Gabbra and Turkana breeds. Originally, they inhabited Garissa, Mandera, Wajir, Moyale, Marsabit, Turkana and Tana River counties. There is a third breed of camel called Pakistani which was imported from Pakistan into Laikipia ranches early 1990s. However, there is no pure Pakistan camels but exist crosses with Somali or Turkana breeds. Currently, Kenya has 6% of Africa’s camel population with camel density in most ASALs estimated at 3.1 camels per km2. Camel is the key contributor to food and nutritional security through milk and meat to human populations in ASALs. In addition, it contributes to sustainable socio-economic wellbeing through sales of live animals and its products, payment of dowries and acting as economic security. Among the pastoral community, it’s an indicator of wealth, prestige and honor

Somali Camel
This is the breed with the highest camel population mainly inhabiting Garissa, Mandera, Wajir, Moyale, Isiolo and Tana River counties. It’s mainly kept by the Somali community in the northeastern region of Kenya. It’s also called Hoor, Sifta, Gelab and Aidimo depending on specific features of differentiation. Due to its comparatively better performance, it has been distributed to most ASAL environments in the county. Somali camel is known for high adaptability in hot and dry environments with a strong ability to walk for longer distances and going for a longer period without water in free range system of production. Its milk and meat are highly medicinal. Special products from camel include the nyir nyir (meat) and camel fat. Somali camel is the largest native single-humped breed. This and other camel breed characteristics are given in Tables 2.38-2.40. These Tables summarise the key characteristics of each camel types.

Somali camel

Table 2.38. Somali Camel breed characteristics

Physical description	Coat colour	Creamy
	Coat hair	Short Males with dark brown hair line from withers to hump
	Average height at withers	2 m
	Average abdominal girth	2.6 m
	Average hump circumference	1.47 m
Production	Meat	Average mature live weight from 450kg
	Milk	3-5 kgsper day Lactation length of 12-17 months
Reproduction	Age at first calving	4-5 years
	Average at calving interval	2.5 years

Rendille/ Gabra breed

This is the second largest native camel breed. It’s named after the Gabra and Rendille communities that inhibit the northern counties of Kenya, namely: Marsabit, Moyale and Samburu. The breed highly adapted to extreme rocky desert condition of Chelbi desert and can tolerate very severe drought than any other camel breed. The light coat colour makes able to thrive and withstand hot and dry environmental conditions.

Rendile/Gabbra camel
Table 2.39. Rendile/ Gabbra Camel breed characteristics

Turkana breed

This is the smallest camel breed in Kenya. It is named after the Turkana community that keeps it. It is native to eastern parts of the country specifically in Turkana County but also inhabits parts of West Pokot, Baringo and Samburu Counties. The breed is highly adapted to rough terrain and extreme drought. In addition to milk and meat, the Turkana community utilizes blood tapped from live animals for food for the young and elderly
Turkana breed
Table 2.40. Turkana breed characteristics

Frizzled Feathers
It is a dual purpose breed with the main characteristic of curled or frizzled plumage. The plumage curves upwards and forward

Naked Neck
This ecotype is devoid of feathers on its neck. It’s a dual purpose bird; lays a reasonable number of eggs and are also considered desirable for meat production


Naked neck (left)


Crested (right)

Crested
The ecotype has a characteristic crested head. Table 2.41 presents the key characteristics of this type of IC.
Table 2.41. The key characteristics of Crested Chicken