CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Information

The per capita demand and supply of animal products and the projections are shown in Appendix 1. Currently, the per capita meat consumption is estimated at 16 kg, 4.5 kg and 110 litres of red meat, white meat and milk respectively (FAO, 2019). The country exports 22,000 MT of semi processed leather and leather products while 11,875 MT is exported raw. The consumption levels are expected to increase due to urbanisation, improved incomes and population increase. According to the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS, 2019), the national human population was approximately 47,584,296 and is projected to increase to 66,450,000 and 91,575,000 by the year 2030 and 2050, respectively. The per capita milk consumption is projected to grow from the current 110 litres to 150 litres and 180 litres over the same period, thus creating a demand for 10 billion litres above the current production of 5.5 billion litres under existing operational norms scenario by 2030. Without any gains in increased yields and output, domestic milk supply will fall short of demand by approximately 4.5 billion litres by 2030.

The number of dairy cows required to meet projected milk demand (per capita of 150 litres) in 2030 will be 4,506,103 with average milk production of 7.9 litres/cow/day under existing operational norms, and 1,779,910 herds of dairy cows with average of 20 litres/cow/day under aspirational scenario. With intensification, the number of dairy herd will reduce but still meet the milk demand. Besides, beef continues to be the most popular red meat in Kenya, constituting up to 80% of the red meat consumed in the country. The bulk of beef production takes place in the Arid and Semi-Arid (ASALs) counties of Kenya which host 70% of the country’s livestock herd. Beef production in the ASAL counties of Kenya is carried out mainly by pastoralists and large-scale ranches. Pastoralists produce about 80% of the beef consumed in Kenya, while large-scale ranches produce another 2-5% and the remaining is produced by highland farmers as part of mixed farming (Mwangi et al., 2022). In 2021 there were 16,182,356 heads of beef cattle at production of 244,217MT (GoK, 2022b). Average per capita meat consumption is 16 kg, but cities like Nairobi have the highest per capita beef consumption of up to 25 kg which is much higher than 11.5 kg in urban areas of Ethiopia (Deneke et al., 2022). Per capita beef consumption is projected to reach 30 kg by 2050 hence the need to intensify production (FAO, 2019).

Intensification of livestock production is widely advocated to meet the increasing demands for livestock products. Livestock intensification involves practices towards feeding managements, disease control and use of improved breeds or cross breeding techniques. Substantial intensification of livestock in Kenya, recognises that there is a hierarchy in the triple bottom line. The economy is contained in the hands of healthy people and the people reside in the planet. Better cared for animals require less resources and can lead to reduction in Green House gasses (GHG) emissions and smaller environmental foot print. For livestock production, adoption of improved breeds that mature in short time reduces GHG emissions. The GHG emission reduction can be achieved through improvements in pasture quality. The reductions are greater when grain finishing as is happening in feedlot and concentrate in the dairy industry is considered, Livestock production especially ruminants, further make efficient use of crop by-products through circular economy contributing further to environmental health. Manure management involve use of manure to generate biogas. The sustainable intensification promote data-driven management decisions with better livestock farming techniques, support farmers in sustainable food production, avoiding food losses and waste at farm level. This has raised profit margins for the farmer, thereby contributing to increasing agricultural share of national GDP. Seasonal feed availability and water scarcity are a major hindrance to realising optimal livestock production and productivity in Kenya, hence the proposed feed reserves, commercial fodder production, enhanced water access through irrigation, water harvesting and storage can be considered best practices.

1.2 Livestock feed and nutrition situation in Kenya

Kenya’s history is marked by recurrence of periodic droughts, which have been exacerbated in the recent past due to the escalating effects of climate change and variability arising from global warming. The ASALs bear the brunt of these effects, experiencing the greatest degree of devastation. These cyclic droughts have far-reaching socio-economic and environmental consequences, necessitating prompt and appropriate responses to safeguard lives, livelihoods and ecosystems that support sustainable livestock production..

1.2 Livestock Feed and Nutrition Situation in Kenya

Feeding is a key factor influencing animal production, health and reproduction. Poor animal nutrition remains a key constraint to sustainable livestock production in Kenya. The livestock feeds industry in Kenya has been growing steadily, attracting several new entrants every year due to the high demand for feeds posing danger as to the maintenance of the required feed quality standards. Numerous studies have shown that most enterprises are operated under poor animal husbandry and management practices resulting in malnourished animals whose production is well below the breed potential due to over reliance on seasonal rain-fed poor-quality forages. Natural pastures constitute the main feed resources for ruminants in most regions of the country. With only 20% of the country described as medium to high potential, the availability of these pastures varies with region and there is need for supplementary feeds in case of deficiencies. This calls for a lot of efforts towards ensuring availability of adequate feeding in order to enhance livestock productivity across all agroecological zones.

Availability of accessible and affordable feeds, in both quantity and quality is a key determinant of sustainable livestock production in Kenya. Drought, often associated with water and feed scarcity, is a frequent phenomenon in Kenya. Under the circumstances, lives and livelihoods of pastoralists suffer most. The increasing frequency and severity of droughts can mainly be attributed to the effects of climate change and variability. During such periods, the Government of Kenya as well as local and international development partners are always called upon for support with a view to protecting the lives and livelihoods of the affected communities.

The key determinants to sustainable livestock productivity include availability of quantity and quality feeds as well as their affordability by smallholder farmers. Feeds alone account for between 60 and 80% of the total production costs for any livestock production enterprise (Association of Kenya Manufacturers [KAM]). Adequate feeding entails ensuring that the diet supplies all minerals as well as meeting the energy and protein requirements of the animal, which directly influence the health, fertility and productivity of livestock.

Thus, the animal feed industry needs to be better re-positioned for commercialisation and competitiveness in the region by providing strategic guidance for improved feed policy and legislative environment. In an effort to drive sustainable feed value chain development and in line with one of the national big four agenda on food (feed) and nutrition security for our country, it has become necessary to develop a national feed strategy with a view to guiding the feed industry development for investment in Kenya. Further, production of animal feeds has a consequence on land use and land use change whose effect may lead to decreasing greenhouse gas (GHGs) emissions that contribute to global warming and climate change. The animal feed industry is therefore expected to mainstream emission reduction strategies for sustainable livestock production and productivity, and address shortages of raw materials due to low production (especially protein sources). The livestock sub-sector can contribute to food security, income generation and wealth creation vide products such as, meat, milk, eggs, hide, skin, wool, blood, hair, manure and feathers that are used raw or processed. The animals also provide essential draught power in 70% of smallholder farms in the region.

1.3 Annual national feed demand and supply

Kenya covers an area of 582,646 square kilometres and hosts 73 million heads of ruminants (5.1million dairy cattle, 21.65 million beef cattle, 25.3million sheep, 662,000 dairy goats and 35.4 million meat goats, 4.7 million camels among other livestock species). Non-Ruminants which include poultry (57.2 million), pigs (649,000), and rabbits (725,000) are produced under intensive or semi-intensive production systems. The non-ruminants mainly depend on non-roughage feeds (cereal and cereal by-products) placing them in direct competition with human beings for food.

The Kenya Feed inventory and feed balance assessment showed that Kenya is producing 46 million MT DM of animal feed resources against national feed requirement of 55 million MT DM indicating a deficit of 9 million MT DM. The competitive feed uses (alternative uses, wastages and losses) accounted for 46% of the land feed production potential of 46 million MT DM equivalent to 21 million MT DM. Therefore, on actual basis, the amount of feed available to the animals within the country is 25 million MT DM against a national feed requirement of 55 million MT DM resulting in a 60% feed deficit, hence feed and nutrition insecurity.

This guide is therefore, intended to give practical interventions to address sustainable feed production and utilisation for enhanced livestock productivity and improved livelihoods. The guide will target county governments to invest in appropriate interventions towards addressing perennial feed scarcity.

1.3 Annual National Feed Demand and Supply

1.4 Feed and nutrition security

The main animal feed resources consist of water, roughages, concentrates, minerals and vitamins. Ruminants, in particular, rely heavily on roughages primarily derived from pastures, browse, fodders and crop-residues. Concentrates on the other hand serve as highly nutritious supplements to roughages and other feeds. They are compounded from energy and protein rich feedstuffs. Concentrates can be produced at farm level as well as commercially. Commercial concentrates are expensive and therefore the level of usage among smallholder producers is low.

To overcome the challenges posed by feed shortage, it is imperative to reduce reliance on rain fed feed production considering the recent erratic weather patterns resulting from climate change. As a solution, the implementation of irrigation either from the rivers, harvested water from the water pans/dams or other sources harnessing runoff is recommended. There is also great need to conserve fodder and grasses using various methods of hay, silage, haylage, pelleting and feed blocks/cubes for use during times of scarcity. In this regard, appropriate storage and distribution strategies should be put in place to facilitate the movement of feeds from regions of plenty to those experiencing deficits. This should be informed by a well-tailored information and data system that tracks feed availability, utilisation and deficit so that relevant timely actions can be undertaken to avert loss of body condition and mortalities that have a direct effect on marketability of livestock and their products. A policy on regular inventory on livestock numbers and available feed stuff on a regular basis to inform contingency planning and some legal framework to allow for the enforcement of regulations within the livestock feed sector. The drivers of the feed insecurity, including natural fires, natural phenomena of floods and drought, diseases, land degradation, overstocking among others contributes to livestock feed shortages.

1.4 Feed and Nutrition Security

References

CHAPTER 2 DRIVERS OF FEED AND NUTRITION INSECURITY

Drivers of feed and nutrition insecurity are the triggers contributing to livestock feed scarcity. Feed and nutrition insecurity in Kenya has persisted overtime mainly due to natural causes, economic situation and human activities. An interaction of these factors has led to unsustainable feed availability thus leading to high livestock mortalities. The drivers include climatic seasonality especially rainfall and drought, pests and diseases, unavailability and high costs of inputs, Overstocking, feed resource losses, land degradation, insecurity and conflicts, invasive plant species, Migration, land fragmentation and poor feed planning and budgeting. Their effects are highlighted below:

2.1 Rainfall performance

Climate change has resulted in variations in intensity and frequency of rainfall and rainfall distribution. This has resulted to changing rainfall patterns characterised by delayed onsets and early cessation of rains as well as shortening the length of forage growing period. This has implications on pasture establishment, thus affecting rangeland regeneration, which are highly rainfall-dependent hence limiting livestock feed availability all year round. In Kenya, ASALs are more dependent on the short rains which have subsequently failed from 2020 while other regions have experienced depressed rainfall. Progressive decline in precipitation has led to shrinkage and reduction of natural pastures resulting in pastoral destitution.

2.1 Rainfall performance

2.2 Drought

In Kenya, drought has been increasing in frequency and severity over time due to the effects of climate change and variability. This has led to land degradation resulting in limited establishment of pastures, making livestock feed availability a major challenge in livestock producing regions. The current drought has led to lowered marketability of livestock due to loss of body condition and in some cases increased livestock mortalities have been observed (Appendix 3). This has resulted in loss of livelihoods and household food and nutrition insecurity. Kenya has reported 2.6 million livestock deaths, valued at KES 37.7 billion in 2022. Due to the impact of previous cumulative failed rainy seasons the livestock mortalities have averaged 20% of all the livestock population. The mortalities have been attributed to severe vegetation loss due to the extended dry spells coupled with increased trekking distances to water points. The resulting loss of livestock genetic diversity coupled with dilution or loss of adapted genes pose real threat to genetic pool of the national livestock population.

2.3 Pests and diseases

With changing climate and ecological equilibrium, there has been emergence of new pests and diseases which have critically affected pasture performance, thus limiting the establishment and yield of pasture species. In the past two years, locust infestation destroyed approximately 3.4 million hectares of pasture and forage crops. The fall armyworm has been reported to attack rye grass while the red spider mites infest Brachiaria grass (Mulato II) (Photo 2.1). The net effect of these occurrences is reduction in the quantity and quality of feeds available for livestock.

Photo 2-1 Forage pests include locusts, red spider mites and fall armyworm

2.4 Unavailability and high cost of inputs

Inputs are essential for feed production and constitute a significant proportion of production costs. Some of the key inputs required to ensure efficient production include seeds, machinery (tractors, balers), herbicides and fertilisers. Due to high cost of inputs, there is inconsistent supply and use of some of the key raw materials such as oil seed cakes and fish meals that are good sources of minerals, vitamins and amino acids, which have a major role on feed quality. Prolonged droughts coupled with overgrazing in the ASALs has resulted to the loss of important range grasses. However, attempts to restore the rangelands through reseeding with superior range grass species such as Cenchrus ciliaris (Fox tail grass), Enteropogon macrostachyus (rye grass), Eragrostis superba (Maasai love grass), Chloris roxburghiana (horse tail grass), Themeda triandra (red oats grass) and Panicum maximum (Guinea grass) though has not achieved much (Mnene, 2006), is a growing effort. The reseeding programmes have been hampered by limited capacity to produce and supply the grass seeds. Additionally, taxation of imported raw materials and machinery required for feed production has further made inputs unaffordable to farmers. This has limited both production and access levels of livestock feed in many regions.

2.5 Overstocking

The livestock populations in the Counties are shown in Appendix 4. According to the National Feed balance report of 2022, Kenya is currently supporting 24 million Tropical Livestock Units (TLUs) while the country has a potential of supporting 20 million TLUs. On actual basis, the land can only support about 11 million TLUs, implying overstocking.

Overstocking occurs when the number of livestock kept exceeds the land carrying capacity over time. This has been caused by migration of livestock in search of pasture and water, poor grazing management and pastoral culture. This has resulted to increased pressure on available feed resources as well as water, and led to land degradation. Community land usually used for communal grazing and other cultural practices have made it difficult to control overstocking among pastoralists and agropastoralists, thus sustaining pressure on the available feed resources.

When overstocking occurs regularly it results in over utilisation of the preferred grass species not allowing them to seed, therefore depleting the natural soil grass seed banks. This leads to increased GHGs due to reduction in carbon sinks. Consequently this favours the sprouting and establishment of invader species which are not palatable thus reducing the feed availability. The high concentration of livestock also results in increased soil erosion further reducing pasture establishment after the long rains due to loss of top soil.

2.6 Feed resource losses

Post-harvest feed resource losses which include alternative uses other than as livestock feed and wastage account for about 46% of the total feed produced (GoK, State Department for Livestock Development, Unpublished). This occurs through burning of pastures and crop residues, poor feeding methods/structures and poor storage, thatching, and limited access to nutritious components e.g. acacia and prosopis pods that end up wasted. Poor feeding techniques and management as well as selective grazing also leads to wastage during feeding, which has implications on the availability of livestock feeds as demonstrated in Photo 2.2. The loss is equivalent to about 20,962 million MT, which can support about 9 million TLUs valued at KES 273 billion. In terms of bales, the lost DM is equivalent to 1.6 billion bales, valued at KES 822 billion.

 
Photo 2-2. Example of wasteful livestock feeding.

2.7 Land Degradation

2.8 Insecurity and conflicts

Insecurity has resulted in displacement of communities and loss of livelihood, contributing to non-sustainable resource utilisation. This has resulted in ineffective resource access and utilisation leading to risk of encroachment of invasive species which have depleted pastures, reduced their biomass yield and quality, and reduced their accessibility. This has led to overstocking in the secure areas where there is migration. There is also disruption due to conflicts leading to poor access to livestock markets and inputs.

2.9 Invasive Plant Species

Emerging invasive and parasitic plant species have rapidly depressed pasture establishment in the rangelands causing pasture inadequacy, hindering access and hampering regeneration. This is because these plants are not palatable to livestock and in some cases they could be poisonous. The most prevalent invaders include Ipomea pandurata, Acacia reficiens, Prosopis juliflora and Cuscuta japonica (Photo 2.4). The invasive plant species have colonised pastureland in the rangelands in most parts of the country, reducing availability of feed. Most of the desired grass species have been suppressed. Other species have depressed biomass performance and are of low quality. The frequency of uncontrollable invader species has increased due to climate change and poor management practices.

Ipomea (Ipomea pandurate)

Prosospis (Prosopis juliflora)

 
Japanese Dodder plant (Cuscuta japonica)

Photo 2-4 Invasive plant species affecting livestock feeds availability

2.10 Migration

2.11 Land Fragmentation

Land fragmentation involves the sub-division of agricultural land into smaller sections. This consistently reduces the available land to produce livestock feeds. Population pressure, urbanisation and change of land use are the main cause of land fragmentation. The adverse effects are reduction in agricultural production and productivity due to uneconomical scales of production. The sub-divided land sizes leave little or no area for livestock feeds production, leading to feed insecurity.

2.12 Poor Feed planning and budgeting

References

Harinder P.S. Makkar, Paul Opio, Joseph Matere, Jay Angerer, Luca Innocente, Wamalwa Kinyanjui, Cyril Ferrand and S. Munyua (2020). National Feed Security System: what it entails and making it operational in East Africa. Broadening Horizons N°530.

CHAPTER 3 KEY PILLARS AND ISSUES ON RUMINANT FEED AND NUTRITION SECURITY

3.1 Pillar 1: Feed availability

3.1.1: Strategic Issue 1. Low feed production

1. Limited accessibility of inputs, including clean and certified seeds, fertilisers/manure to improve soil fertility, and appropriate research Technologies, Innovations and Management Practices (TIMPs), pasture and fodder species, farm implements, tools and mechanised farming leads to production of low yields that are also not nutritious feeds. This in turn limits ruminant production and productivity.
2. Diseases, desert locusts, drought and lack of early maturing crop varieties
3. Limited efforts in the restoration of rangelands and Climate change have led to excessive expansion of invasive and parasitic plant species such as Prosopis juliflora (Mathenge), Ipomea pandurata (Indian Potato/Wild potato vine), Lantana camara (Lantana) Cactus and Custcuta japonica (Japanese dodder) causing severe damage to pasture lands and grazing areas further reducing the availability and quality of feed for livestock.
4. High incidences of diseases and pests, such as rusts, maize lethal necrosis, head smut, locusts, and fall armyworm, negatively impact forage quality, productivity, and the production economy
5. Non-pathogenic conditions, including air pollution, nutrient deficiencies, water stress, extreme temperatures, and mineral toxicities, also significantly impact fodder yields and quality.
6. The occurrence of conflicts and insecurity in feed producing areas disrupts production activities and limits the availability of feeds to ruminants
7. The breakdown of community governance structures over land tenure systems and utilisation leads to overgrazing, thus causing land degradation and loss of fertile soil for feed production.
8. Land fragmentation into uneconomical units especially in the high potential areas/non-ASAL
9. Adverse effects of climate change and environmental shocks such as droughts, floods, and wildfires on fragile ecosystems limit feed production.
10. Over-reliance on rain-fed forage production and high dependence on natural pastures with low biomass yield particularly during dry seasons
11. Poor and inadequate feed planning and budgeting lead to insufficient inputs and feed shortages

3.1.2: Strategic Issue 2. Limited strategic feed reserves

1. Insufficient feed reserves due to low production, poor and limited storage facilities can lead to feed shortages during drought, floods, and other natural disasters, causing poor livestock body conditions resulting in a low value of the animals and in extreme cases, death of livestock.
2. Low adoption of feed conservation technologies lead to loss of feed quality and quantity due to spoilage and degradation, affecting the feed’s nutritional value and reducing its shelf-life. Limited quantities of feeds conserved often result in limited feed availability for livestock throughout the year or when weather calamity strikes.
3. Inadequate feed storage facilities, distribution, and conservation techniques can lead to increased damage and spoilage of feed resources due to exposure to moisture, pests, and other environmental factors.
4. Poor planning and budgeting can lead to insufficient resources allocated to feed production, conservation, and storage activities, resulting in wastage and feed shortages

3.1.3: Strategic Issue 3. Feed import barriers

1. Unfavourable trade tariffs and taxes make imported feeds and feed ingredients more expensive and less accessible, reducing feed’s affordability and availability, especially for smallholder farmers. The import barriers reduce economic growth and development, making it harder for countries to benefit from international trade.
2. Poor strategies for importation result in the inefficient and ineffective supply of imported feeds and feed ingredients, resulting in high costs, delays, and disruptions in the supply chain. The poor strategies for importation lead to shortages and price increases of feeds and feed ingredients, making it unaffordable and inaccessible for smallholder farmers.
3. Existence of inter-County levies/taxes in transportation restricts feed resources trade among Counties

3.1.4: Strategic Issue 4. Unstructured feed markets

1. Hoarding, monopoly, unhealthy competition, inefficiency in the supply chain, brokerage, and protectionism results in demand and supply in-equilibrium, leading to artificial feed shortages and uncertain price volatility. These imbalances lead to temporary deficits or surpluses, and prices may take time to adjust to reach the new equilibrium point.
2. Limited availability of favourable credit limits investment in the feed industry and makes it difficult for value chain actors to access finance to purchase inputs, including feeds.
3. Poor markets, market information networks, and limited market research impede the transparency of the feed market, making it difficult for value chain actors to access information on prices and feed availability.
iv. Unfavourable national and County levies create an additional cost burden for stakeholders and inhibit investment in the feed industry.
4. Lack of or limited organised feed distribution strategies and mechanisms from points of plenty to points of scarcity

3.1.5: Strategic Issue 5. Inefficient feed transportation

1. Poor road networks limit feed transportation to markets and increase transportation costs. It also causes unnecessary delays. Poor and insufficient road networks have significant social, economic, and environmental impacts.
2. Limited modes of feed transportation limit the efficiency and speed of delivery, leading to increased feed contamination and spoilage, increased prices, and reduced profitability for the livestock feed industry.
3. Insecurity along feed transportation corridors has significant social, economic, and environmental impacts. Lack of security measures along transportation corridors leads to high transportation costs, reduced feed availability, and slowed economic growth and development.
4. Increased transportation costs, quality and safety risks, and limited market access.

3.2 Pillar 2: Feed access

3.2.1 Strategic Issue 1. Limited physical access to feeds

1. Limited mobility due to insecurity, poor road network, few transportation options and unscrupulous transporters can limit the physical accessibility of feeds
2. Limited information and communication by farmers unaware of the various types of available feeds and how/where to access them may struggle to provide adequate nutrition to ruminants.
3. The cost of transporting feed to remote areas can be very high, as these areas may be far from major feed markets or feed centers. People who live in rural or remote areas may have limited access to feed because they live far from the nearest feed supplier.
4. Lack of or limited planning and budgeting leads to feed shortages, insufficient inputs, and funds to produce feeds. Failure to plan appropriately leads to not having the right animal feed mix. The unfavourable weather conditions coupled with poorly maintained roads or lack of footpaths, bridges, or culverts crossings can make it difficult for people to access feed stores physically
5. Competition for natural pastures particularly in the rangeland by wildlife and livestock

3.2.2: Strategic Issue 2. Limited social access to feeds

1. Gender biases lead to inequality in land ownership, accessibility, and utilisation, limiting women’s ability to produce feed.
2. Drug and substance abuse can lead to financial constraints, neglect of ruminants, and a negative impact on mental health, limiting a farmer’s ability to access feed resources and markets.
3. Most smallholder farmers have low technical skills and knowledge in feed production and conservation, as most rely on natural pastures.
4. Retrogressive cultural practices can be a challenge. For example, communities that believe in Female Genital Mutilation ( (FGM) may restrict the ability of women to participate in feed production. Additionally, beliefs in witchcraft and other negative cultural practices may impact access to feed resources.
5. Ethnicity can also be a factor, with minority communities sometimes being segregated and facing challenges in accessing resources for feed production.
6. Cattle rustling and insecurity can also disrupt feed production and limit the ability of farmers to produce enough feed for ruminants.
7. Changes in land use and land tenure systems limiting access to grazing land and pasture access
8. Most pastoralists do not engage in forage production since they depend on natural pastures
9. Marginalisation of some areas limit the access to inputs, services and markets, affecting accessibility to ruminant feed resources
10. Limited inclusion of women and youth as key players in the feed value chain

3.2.3: Strategic Issue 3. Limited economic access to feeds

1. Farmers with limited financial resources may struggle to afford high-quality commercial feeds and in large quantities because of the high cost of imported feed ingredients and transportation costs
2. Limited Access to market information and research makes it difficult for farmers to decide what feed to purchase, the alternative feeds available, and the current market prices. Limited market information can make it difficult for farmers to negotiate fair prices.
3. Unscrupulous business practices have a significant impact on feed access. Such businesses include fraudulent practices in the sale of inputs and unethical behaviour by middlemen in the sale of feed, which negatively impact farmers’ profitability.
4. Competition for food and feed between animals and humans

3.3: Pillar 3. Feed utilization

3.3.1:Strategic Issue 1. Poor feed quality

1. Poor feed handling (processing, conservation, formulation, storage, transportation, adulteration) leads to spoilage, nutrient loss, and contamination, reducing the quality of the feed and the productivity of the ruminants.
2. Few of the operational laboratories are not accredited, can analyse limited quality parameters, are located far from the farmer, take long periods to analyse samples, and the high cost of analysis is prohibitive, particularly to the small-scale farmer
3. Limited skills of the feed business operators can lead to inefficiencies, poor quality feed, and reduced profitability.
4. Limited regulation of feed business operators leads to substandard feeds, reduced productivity, and increased incidence of ruminant diseases.
5. Few watering points and contaminated water sources

3.3.2: Strategic Issue 2. Unsafe feed resources

1. Poor feed handling and contamination during processing, conservation, storage, and transportation (mycotoxins, microbes, pesticide residue, heavy metals and petroleum products)
2. Feed adulteration causes changes in quality and most often compromises feed safety
3. The few accredited laboratories are in urban areas, and most cannot handle feed safety issues. The semi-skilled labour force limits their capacity to operate efficiently
4. Harmful deposits from industrial processes and mining activities resulting to air, water and feed contamination and pollution

3.3.3 Strategic Issue 3. Inadequate and inefficient feed processing and value addition

1. Low level of mechanisation leads to inefficient feed processing leading to reduced productivity and increased labour costs (chaff cutters, panga)
2. Limited access to quality feed ingredients leads to substandard feed production, reduced productivity, and increased incidence of ruminant diseases.
3. The high cost of modern feed technology, equipment, and electricity limits the adoption of new technologies and reduces productivity.
4. Limited technical skills in feed formulation, processing, and value addition lead to substandard feed production, reduced productivity, and increased incidence of ruminant diseases.
5. Multiple and unharmonised licensing requirements by different agencies limit feed processing and value addition

3.4: Pillar 4. Feed stability

3.4.1 Strategic Issue 1. Adverse effects of climate change

1. Inadequate disaster preparedness and response is a factor contributing to feed unavailability, inaccessibility, poor utilization, which affects all pillars of feed and nutrition security.
2. The impact of climate change ruminant production, including degradation of ecosystems, invasive/ alien plant and grass species, intensification of floods and droughts, increased pests and disease incidences, and depletion of natural resources, leading to increasing uncertainty about forage yields and quality and water scarcity
3. Inadequate attention to sustainable rangeland management and conservation as a factor in preserving their contribution to the ruminant feed and nutrition security in ASAL areas.

3.4.2 Strategic Issue 2. Poor economic performance

1. Poverty and insufficient purchasing power due to low wage for workers lead to inadequate access to ruminant feeds
2. Lack of a favourable environment that promotes feed resources and ruminant development
3. Lack of favorable policies and environment that promotes feed resources and ruminant development
4. Continuing insecurity of land tenure and access to land, water and other natural resources, particularly for women and youth farmers
5. Continuing insecurity of land tenure and access to land, water and other natural resources, particularly for women and youth farmers
6. Insufficient investment in the feed sub-sector and rural infrastructure for both the small-scale feed producers, agropastoralists and pastoralists
7. Insufficient access by feed producers to a comprehensive technical assistance, and relevant research technologies, inputs and institutions
8. Low farmer incomes emanating from low ruminant production and productivity

3.4.3 Strategic Issue 3. Undeveloped feed markets

1. Low or lack of market networks that are transparent and regulated
2. Poor infrastructure and limited market information resulting to lack of awareness. This leads to constrained trade in feed resources that can stabilize the industry.
3. Existence of many feed resources whose distribution, availabilities and qualities are uncertain.

3.4.4 Strategic Issue 4. Weak research institutions

1. Limited research on feed technology development affects feed production by limiting the scope for improvement. Enhancing the available feed and fodder germplasm adapted to various environments is needed. Application of research results from universities and institutions will improve new development.
2. Inadequate technology dissemination and capacity-building opportunities limit the uptake of new technologies, processes, and techniques.

3.4.5 Strategic Issue 5. Unfavourable policy, legal and regulatory environment

1. Poor compliance with feed quality standards and safety reduces farmers’ trust in feed products, limiting the growth of the feed industry.
2. Unfavorable terms of trade for the import and export of ruminant feeds and feed ingredients increase the feed production cost, reducing the livestock industry’s competitiveness.
3. Poor implementation of regulations governing the use of new/non-conventional feed resources limits their exploitation, reducing the potential for developing alternative feed resources
4. Unfavourable policies on land use, rangeland conservation, and idle land limit access to land for feed production, thus reducing the potential for expanding feed production. The current land subdivision in the country that does not limit land fragmentation has resulted in parcels that are uneconomical for agricultural production.
5. The impact of climate change on ruminant production, including degradation of ecosystems, invasive/ alien plant and grass species, intensification of floods and droughts, increased pests and disease incidences, and depletion of natural resources, leading to increasing uncertainty about forage yields and quality and water scarcity
6. Inadequate attention to sustainable rangeland management and conservation as a factor in preserving their contribution to the ruminant feed and nutrition security in ASAL areas.
7. Continuing insecurity of land tenure and access to land, water and other natural resources, particularly for women and youth farmers
8. Insufficient investment in the feed sub-sector and rural infrastructure for both the small-scale feed producers, agropastoralists and pastoralists
9. War, conflict and lack of security play a significant role in deepening feed and nutrition insecurity. In fragile Counties, conflict, political instability and weak institutions intensifies and feed insecurity
10. Lack of political commitment and prioritisation of feed and nutrition security, including failure to fully implement past pledges and promises and insufficient accountability
11. Inadequate policies and regulations on disaster preparedness

3.4.6 Strategic Issue 6. Negative social factors

1. Insufficient attention paid to the role and contribution of women and their special vulnerabilities in regard to feed production and ruminant nutrition and the many forms of legal and cultural discrimination they suffer
2. Population growth, urbanisation and rural-urban migration
3. Lack of or limited opportunities for diversification of livelihoods; and growing inequalities between population groups in the country
4. Low levels of education and literacy impacting poor feed production practices, conservation, and utilisation
5. Beliefs that keeping of large herds is prestigious

3.4.7 Strategic Issue 7. Unfavourable political situation

1. Resource based conflicts and lack of security play a major role in deepening feed and nutrition insecurity. In fragile Counties, conflict, political instability and weak institutions intensify feed insecurity
2. Lack of political commitment and prioritisation of the feed and nutrition security, including failure to fully implement past pledges and commitments and insufficient accountability.

CHAPTER 4 STRATEGIC INTERVENTIONS TO ADDRESS RUMINANT FEED AND NUTRITION INSECURITY

4.1. Pillar 1: Feed availability

4.1.1 Intervention 1. Strategies to increase feed production

1. Facilitate seed production and multiplication - create an enabling environment for Public-private Partnerships (PPPs) on forage seed multiplication and distribution to thrive at the County level.
2. Create efficient functional partnerships between KALRO, universities on the one hand, and seed companies and other private seed multiplication and distribution enterprises to promote the commercialisation of forage seed production.
3. Organise seed fairs and field days at County and community levels to create awareness and establish linkages for feed planting material access.
4. Establish strategic community and County seed banks
5. Review existing laws and policies concerning the certification of institutions to produce and sell seeds and other planting materials (reduce the long bureaucracy) and exempt indigenous seed systems from the bureaucracy. Also, minimise bureaucracy on forage seed and planting material importation
6. Develop new promising forage varieties with better nutrient profiles through innovative plant breeding technologies (to seek and establish partnerships with research institutions)
7. Introduce science in seed development, e.g. biotechnology
8. Increased availability of necessary machinery, equipment, implements and ICT technologies (feed mixers, forage harvesters, hay balers, mowers, silage balers, etc.) (Photos 4.1, 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4)
9. Incentivise the domestic “jua kali” sector and equipment distributors to innovate on simple locally manufactured feed implements suitable for small-scale operations

Photo 4-1. Hand held tractor


Photo 4-2. Hay baler


Photo 4-3. Hay baler


Photo 4-4. Electric feed chopper (Source KALRO- Kiboko)


10. Tax exemption on importation of feed value chain machinery, equipment and implements
11. Develop organised service provider groups to support the livestock feed value chain by hiring out of services, developing forage producer groups, and advocating for synchronised value chain activity rollout.
12. Update, out-scale, and promote KALRO crop suitability advisory maps (Available at Android Apps on Google Play and website: selector.kalro.org)
13. Minimise regulatory requirements for the importation of forage seeds and planting materials.
    
14. Certified seed vendors to decentralise the services

1. Enhance agribusiness practices in feed commercialisation (record keeping, minimum efficient scale)
2. Incubation for startup feed agribusinesses and funding
3. Increase availability of feed ingredients (local production)
4. Encourage microfinance institutions to focus on the feed sub-sector
5. Develop strategies to attract private sector investment in the feed value chain
6. Encourage private-public sector investment (participation)
7. Establishment/strengthening of feed and pasture seed aggregation centres
8. Establishment/strengthening of farmer producer organisations for marketing and market linkages

1. Promote control of invasive species through sustainable utilisation (Utilisation of woody species for biomass production - charcoal briquettes, wood carvings, utensils- wooden spoons, construction poles/posts, utilisation of pods and seeds as feeds and feed ingredients, utilisation for human food, utilisation for human herbal medicine, e.g. Cactaceae species
2. Improve early detection and rapid response to identify invasive species early and take immediate action to control their spread. Early species detection can be done through regular monitoring and surveillance programs, which trained personnel or citizen scientists can do.
3. Enhance biological control using natural enemies of invasive species, such as predators, parasites, and diseases, to control their populations. This method can be an effective and sustainable control method, but it requires careful selection of the biological control agents to ensure they do not harm native species.
4. Enhance cultural control by modifying human activities and land-use practices to reduce the spread of invasive species. This method can include changes in farming practices, such as crop rotation and weed management, or changes in recreation practices, such as limiting the transportation of plant materials between different areas.
5. Improved physical control involves using mechanical or manual methods to remove invasive species, such as pulling or cutting plants or using barriers to prevent their spread. This method can be effective for small-scale infestations but challenging for larger or more established populations.
6. Improved chemical control involves using herbicides to control invasive species. This method can be effective but can have negative impacts on non-target species and the environment, so it should only be used as a last resort and with careful consideration.
7. Citizen science (community engagement): This involves engaging and empowering local communities to help monitor and control invasive species. This method can effectively raise awareness and mobilise action against invasive species and gather data on their distribution and impacts.
8. Enhance education and outreach by raising awareness and educating about invasive species, their impacts, and how to prevent their spread. This method uses various channels, including schools, community events, and social media.

1. Promote Integrated Pest Management (IPM holistic approach that combines different pest control methods, including biological, cultural, physical, and chemical methods). Combining techniques reduces reliance on one, leading to more sustainable and effective pest management.
2. Crop rotation involves alternating crops to break the pest cycle. This practice helps reduce pest populations and diseases specific to a particular crop.
3. Biological control: Biological control involves using natural enemies of pests, such as predators, parasites, and pathogens, to control pest populations. This approach is sustainable, environmentally friendly, and has long- lasting effects.
4. Use of resistant varieties: Plant breeders can develop crops resistant to pests and diseases. These pest and disease-resistant varieties can reduce the need for chemical pesticides and the incidence of pest and disease outbreaks.
5. Improved sanitation involves removing sources of pest infestations, such as pulling weeds and debris that harbour pests and cleaning tools and equipment that may spread diseases.
6. Enhance capacity building to prevent and manage pest and disease outbreaks. Farmers, gardeners, and the public should be educated on the importance of pest and disease management, integrated pest management, and the proper use of pesticides.
7. Develop early detection and warning methods to prevent spreading of pests and diseases. Regular monitoring and surveillance can detect outbreaks early, and quick action can prevent the spread of pests and diseases.
8. Pheromone traps are to control pest populations by using synthetic pheromones to attract pests to a trap. This approach is an environmentally friendly and effective way of controlling pests.

1. Encourage community peace-building efforts through activities that build community integration - for example, peace caravans, building schools, sporting activities, and other social amenities at the common border of conflicting communities and clans
2. Promote affirmative actions and programs to uplift the marginalised
3. Strengthen inter-community dialogue and negotiations to mitigate potential resource-based conflict
4. Disarming of the local communities to reduce proliferation of illegal small arms.
5. Encourage integration measures among different communities through intermarriages and participation in common activities

1. Integration of community governance into national and County government decision-making and policy processes.
2. Lease out idle private land for feed production
3. Establish range management committees and community dialogues
4. Establish/strengthen range management committees
5. Develop and implement the range management bill/act and regulations at the county level

1. Timely feed harvesting at optimum quantity and quality (at 50% flowering)
2. Promote intercropping of fodder with legumes. For example, Maasai love grass (Eragrostis superba) intercropped with green leaf desmodium (Desmodium intortum), Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana) intercropped with Lucerne grass (Medicago sativa) or purple vetch (Vicia americana) in the ASAL areas, and Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) intercropped with green leaf desmodium in the non-ASAL areas.
3. Promote Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) s and intensification
4. Increase area under multipurpose trees (MPTs), multipurpose shrubs (MPSs), and agroforestry. Readers are referred to Nair et al. (2021).for further information.
5. Improve soil fertility and structure using fertilisers, manure, and compost.
6. Promote SLM (sustainable land management) systems of the rangelands, rangeland reseeding & natural land regeneration
7. Promotion of community grazing plans and patterns

1. Identify, select, disseminate and upscale locally adapted drought-tolerant forage varieties taking into consideration the KEPHIS regulations and guidelines
2. Intercrop grasses with legumes or fodder trees
3. Develop agrosilvopastoral systems in both rangelands and non-ASALs
4. Promote co-production and dissemination of traditional and scientific early warning systems
5. Promote the use of both traditional and scientific early warning systems that monitor weather patterns and provide farmers with information on how to adapt to changes in weather patterns (reserving feeds timely)
6. Promote climate-smart ruminant farming practices, including drought-tolerant feed crops (brachiaria, cobra, and sorghum species).
7. Enhance conservation agriculture and water harvesting technologies.
8. Enhance water availability in all seasons for use during the dry season by encouraging farmers to form fodder production cooperatives for effective harvesting of water from various sources (rain, surface, underground) storage and harvesting infracture (boreholes, dams, pans, farm gate water harvesting equipment) and use (irrigation)
9. Identify, select and disseminate forage varieties that can withstand flooding and water logging conditions and reduce soil erosion. Planting cover crops (cowpeas- M66 (Vigna unguiculata), dolichos lablab (Lablab purpureus), mung bean or Njahe (Vigna radiata), desmodium species, mukuna (Mukuna pruriens), crotalaria (Crotaralia retusa) will also Enhance land degradation mitigation measures, including community-driven sustainable rangeland rehabilitation and management and practices (re-afforestation, agroforestry, silvo-pastoralism, natural forest conservation, community forest management, boundary plantings)
10. Promote activities that enhance control and eradication of invasive species through sustainable utilisation
11. Incentivise communities to implement community land restoration, including soil and water conservation, under the Participatory Integrated Community Development (PCID) model
12. Promote proper animal mix for improved grazing management (cattle, sheep, goats and camels)
13. Re-engineer community governance structures to promote participatory rangeland management and sustainable grazing regimes; enforce sustainable stocking rates and recommended carrying capacity management; and promote investment in research and development for local production of diversified alternative high protein and high energy rich feeds in the long term

1. Establish the ruminant population by species and herd structure (census)
2. Establish/determine feed requirements for the species and classes in quantity and quality (DM, ME, CP, Stocking rate/ carrying capacity)
3. Establish the feed resource available (roughages, concentrates, minerals, premixes)
4. Establish the feed balance (surpluses, deficits)
5. Develop a national/ County ruminant feed action plan

4.1.2 Intervention 2. Strategy to enhance strategic feed reserves

1. Encourage the construction of on-farm and community-based feed reserve facilities for small-scale farmers through government subsidies and partnerships with private sector players.
2. Implement a public-private partnership to establish strategically located feed storage centres across the Counties.
3. Train farmers on the use of appropriate storage technologies to minimise losses.
4. Establish a national feed reserve fund to financially support farmers during feed scarcity.
5. Reduce costs of feed conservation through large-scale operations, including bulk purchase of conserved materials (cooperatives, farmer organisations, communal conservancies)
6. Development of strategic feed conservation sites/ feed reserves/ grazing reserves/ feed banks/ feed centres in villages, wards and Counties
7. Conserve feeds under favourable weather conditions (temperatures, moisture) to avoid spoilage
8. Enhance infrastructure to the feed centres/conservation sites (roads, port, railway)
9. Construct feed storage structures/stores within the vicinity of feed centres and producers
10. Harvesting and storage of idle natural pastures in the rangelands.

1. Construct feed storage structures/stores within the vicinity of feed centres and producers
2. Utilise idle capacity and increase the efficiency of the existing structures through review and redesigning of the existing feed storage structures
3. Promote modern feed storage structures
4. Train artisans on skills and technology on the correct materials and designs for constructing hay barns and silage banks
5. Equip stakeholders with relevant skills for filling of hay barns and silos
6. Sensitise stakeholders on hazards eg. spontaneous fires, rodents, rain/wind storms

1. Enhance access to cheap and affordable credit
2. Establish a fund/grant for establishment and construction of feed storage facilities at the feed centres
3. Encourage PPPs & P to establish storage facilities for farmers at an affordable fee

1. Timely planting and harvesting to synchronise the activities with the right weather conditions
2. Facilitate farmers in acquiring silos, silage tubes/ bags and in construction of silos for silage storage
3. Ensure proper orientation of the storage structure (The long side of the structure should not face the wind/rain direction)
4. Use weather proof designs in constructing feed storage structures
5. Solar drying of hay during rainy weather conditions under greenhouse structures
6. Enhanced early warning system especially on forecasted unfavourable weather conditions giving appropriate advisories

1. Construct feed stores with vermin control structures
2. Control rodents (mice, rats, moles) from inhabiting the feed stores
3. Use insecticide to control termites from invading the feed stores.

1. Hay and silage making
2. Feed pelleting
3. Feed briquettes
4. Feed meals
5. Feed blocks

1. Beef up security- fencing, locking, use CCTV cameras, mobile apps, security guards
2. Control the vice through education and legal system

1. Develop and implement a comprehensive County feed reserve management plan that includes regular assessment and monitoring of feed reserves, forecasting of demand, and provision for regular replenishment.
2. Incorporate ICT feed management app (LifeSim, digital cow, KALRO selector etc) that farmers can use to plan their feed reserves, forecast feed demand, and access information on feed prices.
3. Promote dry and wet season grazing areas
4. Establishment of feed camp options for livestock maintenance during the drought seasons; In-Residential and out feed camps

4.1.3 Intervention 3. Strategies to improve the availability of commercial feeds

1. The country has limited capacity in production of feed ingredients such as amino acids, premixes and additives, thus a strategic short-term importation is required as a stop gap measure
2. Incentivise local feed manufacturers to produce concentrate feeds in large quantities to be used in feed deficit periods.

1. Lobby the government to ensure favourable tariffs and taxes
2. Join industry Associations e.g. lobby groups
3. Take advantage of preferential trade agreements e.g. the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) agreement

1. Insect feed sources- Black Soldier Fly Larvae (BSFL), Crickets, termites
2. Tree legumes

4.1.4 Intervention 4. Strategies to promote efficient and functional feed markets

1. Farmers need to be empowered through education to sell their produce directly to consumers or retailers. This eliminates middlemen and enables them to earn higher prices
2. Farmers can form cooperatives and sell their produce collectively. This practice gives them greater bargaining power and better product prices.
3. Encourage contract farming, farmers sign an agreement with a buyer, specifying the terms and conditions of the sale. This approach helps farmers secure a steady product market and reduces their dependence on brokers.
4. Several online platforms connect farmers directly with buyers. This platform helps farmers reach a wider market, eliminating the need for intermediaries.
5. Governments can provide subsidies, loans, and technical assistance to farmers, helping them reduce their costs and improve their productivity. This assistance allows farmers to earn higher profits and reduce their dependence on brokers.

1. Governments can impose price caps on essential goods to prevent hoarders from profiting from the increased demand. The price caps help keep prices reasonable and ensure consumers can access necessary items.
2. Governments can monitor retailers and wholesalers to ensure they do not hoard essential goods. They can impose fines or other penalties on individuals or businesses that engage in hoarding practices.
3. Governments and businesses can collaborate to share information and coordinate their efforts to mitigate hoarding. The collaborations help ensure that essential goods are available to consumers and reduce the risk of shortages.
4. Encourage youth to venture into commercial feed production

1. Establishing feed centres in Counties helps stabilise prices by adjusting production based on market demand.
2. Relying on a single feed source can leave farmers vulnerable to price fluctuations. Farmers can spread their risk by diversifying their feed sources and potentially finding lower-priced options.
3. Farmers can plan and purchase feed when prices are lower, such as after harvest or during periods of oversupply. They can also consider buying in bulk to take advantage of volume discounts.
4. Market information informs farmers and feeds traders about market trends and news to avoid losses and take advantage of opportunities.
5. Introduction of warehousing and receipt system in feed production

1. Encourage competition by reducing entry barriers, enforcing antitrust laws, and promoting free and fair trade.
2. Regulating dominant firms’ market power through price controls, regulating mergers and acquisitions, and breaking up monopolies can help prevent unfair practices and create a more level playing field.
3. Promote market transparency through measures such as mandatory disclosure requirements and consumer protection regulations
4. Encouraging innovation through measures such as patent protection, research and development grants, and promoting entrepreneurship can help create new market entrants and prevent monopolies from dominating markets.
5. Support small and medium-sized enterprises through measures such as access to finance, training and mentoring
6. Foster inter-County cooperation through measures such as trade agreements, intellectual property protection and international standards
7. Empower consumers through measures such as consumer education, transparency, and access to information

1. Implementation of inventory management software technology, barcoding, and automated data collection
2. Improving communication and information flow to ensure communication channels are clear and open between stakeholders can help reduce supply chain inefficiency.
3. Negotiated feed supply contracts, including establishing quality standards and understanding the supplier’s capabilities.

1. Establish credit history for individuals to take small loans and make payments on time to build a positive credit history.
2. Promote financial inclusion and support to help increase access to grants and microfinance for underserved populations, such as low-income households, small businesses, and rural communities
3. Enhanced competition among financial institutions can lead to lower interest rates and better loan terms for borrowers. Incentives that encourage new entrants into the financial sector and promote innovations can help increase competition and drive down costs.
4. Credit guarantees can help reduce the risk for lenders, making it easier for them to provide credit to borrowers. Governments can give credit guarantees or insurance to lenders to encourage them to lend to underserved populations or to support specific sectors, such as small businesses or agriculture.
5. Financial education programs can help individuals and businesses make informed decisions about savings, borrowing and managing finances. By increasing financial literacy, borrowers may be better equipped to access credit responsibly and avoid over-indebtedness.
6. Promote sharia compliant credit products and village savings and loans.

1. Governments and community market scouts can provide market intelligence reports and analysis to help businesses and individuals make informed decisions about market opportunities and trends.
2. Promote use of ICT
3. Dispatch information on markets and performance in print, televised and audio media
4. Collaboration with other businesses can provide access to new markets, customer bases, and valuable knowledge and expertise.

1. Encourage stakeholder participation, and enhance collaboration and partnerships during the County government finance bill formulation process
2. Counties should explore alternative funding sources such as public-private partnerships, grant funding, and crowdfunding to diversify revenue sources and reduce the over-reliance on County government levies.
3. Engage in advocacy efforts, such as lobbying local officials, organising community forums, and engaging with the media to raise awareness of unfair local government levies and mobilise support for change.
4. Promote unified local government levies to encourage feed trade across Counties

4.1.5 Intervention 5. Strategies to improve the feed transport system

1. Upgrade link road standards to all-weather status
2. Upgrade main trunk roads to bituminous status
3. Maintenance of roads to passable status
4. Increase road network to production and utilisation centres
5. Use more alternatives to truck transport
6. Establish transport groups for animal feeds along the main transport routes
7. Establish link points to the main trunk lines
8. Suitable transport trucks and other local means e.g. customised donkey carts, tuktuk

1. Suitable transport truck designs for different types of feeds
2. Reduce distances by having many feed centres
3. Pooling transport to reduce costs
4. Operate at economies of scale- e.g. Transport in bulk

1. Provide community security on feed infrastructures and along transport routes
2. Local community ownership of the feeds and feed infrastructures
3. Install security gadgets, e.g. CCTVs and tracking systems along transport corridors
4. Police escort and reinforcement along transport corridors

1. Lobby for the establishment of standard charges per unit of feed or feed ingredient package
2. Develop standard packaging materials
3. Develop standard materials for reusable packaging
4. Establish standard package weight/size for different feed types
5. Mapping stock routes to encourage efficient feed and water delivery

4.2. Pillar 2: Feed access

4.2.1 Intervention 1. Enhance physical access to feeds

1. Establishment of road networks to improve on feed transportation and security
2. Establishment of information and communication platforms for data and information sharing
3. . Establishment of feed centres in remote areas where farmers can access adequate feeds
4. Improvement on feed contingency plans in case of disruption; and establish grazing plans
5. Establishment strategic water infrastructure
6. Water trucking to enable use of idle pastures in the rangelands
7. Improvement of security to enable access to far flung areas
8. Establishment of conflict resolution mechanisms

4.2.2 Intervention 2. Consider social concerns in feed access

1. Promote gender mainstreaming and inclusivity in feed production, access and utilisation decision making
2. Encourage gender-balanced participation in feed related trainings
3. Encourage gender balance in land ownership, access, utilisation

1. Implement rehabilitation programs for drug and substance addicts.
2. Sensitise the youth on feed-related income generation activities to reduce idleness
3. Provide alternative livelihood opportunities for drug peddlers and illicit brew distillers

1. Train farmers on modern technologies on feeds and feeding
2. Translation of training materials, brochures, and fliers in local languages
3. Use of local trainers to conduct the training
4. Use of demonstration and model farms
5. Use of vernacular print, TV and radio programs to upscale agricultural technologies
6. Use of lead and champion farmers
7. Use of ICT and social platforms for skills dissemination

1. Sensitise the community against segregation and discrimination on access and utilisation of community feed resources
2. Elimination of cattle rustling practices and security restoration (beefing up security and peace-building initiatives)
3. Encourage schooling for modern education and religious affiliation to minimise negative cultural beliefs (e.g., witchcraft).
4. Sensitise the community against ethnic-based segregation and discrimination on access and utilisation of community resources
5. Discouragement of retrogressive community practices such as burning of pastures during conflict
6. Unplanned burning of pasture land for tick control
7. Cutting of trees due to lack of ownership of community land- tragedy of the commons
8. Overdependence of the rangeland for pasture without alternative sources of feeds

4.2.3 Intervention 3. Strategies to improve economic access to feeds

1. Collective purchasing: Farmers can come together to pool their resources and purchase feed in bulk, resulting in lower prices and increased bargaining power. The coming together is through cooperatives, farmer groups, or community-based organisations.
2. Diversification of income: Farmers can diversify their income streams by engaging in other activities such as agroforestry, beekeeping, or poultry keeping, which can provide additional income to purchase feed.
3. Access to credit: Farmers may need access to credit to purchase the necessary feed. e.g. hustler fund governments and cooperative loans facility can provide credit programs or financial support to help farmers purchase feed and other essential inputs.
4. Subsidies: Government subsidies can be provided to farmers to offset the cost of feed and other inputs. These subsidies can be targeted to small-scale farmers in need and help improve their purchasing power.

1. Encourage the use of market information systems for data and information sharing
2. Use of media to share information on available markets
3. Use of media ,social gatherings, baraza,posters, bronchures and other channels to share information on available market
4. Establishment of farmers service centres for increased access to market information
5. Use of ICT to improve market information.

1. Promote ethical business practices
2. Promote consumer protection through enforcement of feed standards- KEBS

4.3 Pillar 3. Feed utilisation

4.3.1 Intervention 1. Strategies to improve feed quality

1. Harvest pastures and fodder at optimal yield and quality (Timely feed harvesting to maintain optimum levels of ME, CP, CF and weight of the feed)
2. Feed processing to increase palatability and utilisation (chopping, pulverising, grinding, roasting, decorticating/ dehulling, crumbling, dry rolling, flaking, pressure cooking, exploding, pelleting, reconstituting, extruding)
3. Feed value-addition including crop residues (treatment, leaf meal, feed blocks, fortification, densification, supplements, probiotics, feed formulation)
4. Train farmers and feed handlers on proper feed handling practices, including cleaning and disinfection of storage and transportation equipment and sound storage practices.
5. Provide farmers with appropriate storage facilities and materials, such as moisture-proof bags and silos.
6. Develop and enforce regulations on feed handling practices to ensure compliance with standards and reduce adulteration.
7. Packaging and labelling for enhanced phytosanitary requirements.

1. Increased the number of accredited laboratories and improve their capacity to analyse a broader range of feed quality parameters.
2. Reduce the analysis cost by subsidising laboratory services or establishing public-private partnerships to provide affordable laboratory services to small-scale farmers.
3. Strengthen regulatory agencies to enhance monitoring and enforcement of feed quality standards.
4. Facilitate capacity building and accreditation of existing feed testing laboratories
5. Establishment of more feed testing laboratories at the County level
6. Create awareness of the need for feed testing
7. Train more laboratory staff on feed testing

1. Develop and implement training programs for feed business operators on feed production, formulation, storage, and marketing.
2. Provide access to technical assistance and mentorship to enhance skills and knowledge transfer.
3. Establish business development services centres to provide support in business planning, financial management, and marketing

1. Develop and enforce feed quality and safety standards, including regulations on feed additives and processing practices.
2. Establish a licensing system to regulate feed production and marketing, focusing on small-scale producers.
3. Conduct regular inspections and monitoring of feed production facilities to ensure compliance with standards and regulations.
4. Enforce feed operators’ registration with KEBS and follow Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs)
5. Enforce feed regulations- labelling, ingredient standards, and manufacturing practices.
6. Skill capacity building of the feed business operators
7. Enforce operationalisation of feed quality standards
8. Establish feed-quality surveillance systems

4.3.2 Intervention 2. Strategies to improve feed standards

1. Develop and operationalise feeds code of practice, especially for the forages.
2. Harmonise and operationalise feed stuff standards and tariffs. Ongoing efforts are to harmonise feed standards for the East African region, mainly feed ingredients and forages. The process needs operationalisation, including awareness creation and broadening the standards to encompass other trading blocks, e.g. COMESA, SADC, ECOWAS
3. Promote uniformity in units of packages and labelling for the different feed operators.
4. Enhance surveillance systems and enforcement of feed quality standards
5. Review existing policy and legislation on feed standardisation
6. Fast-track the livestock bill to facilitate the formulation of the animal feed regulations
7. Provide adequate information and communication (limited awareness) on feed quality standards since most rural users have low access to information. This should be emphasised in local media -print, television and radio to reach the critical mass of farmers to improve feed quality standards.

4.3.3 Intervention 3. Strategies to improve feed safety during processing, conservation, storage and transportation

1. Preprocessing feed materials and allowing them to dry to the required moisture level (12-13%) before mixing and storing.
2. Use improved methods of feed conservation ((hay, silage, haylage, standing hay, water and air tight containers)
3. Improve feed storage (Clean, well ventilated and vermin-proof storage barns
4. Minimise levels of pesticide residues in feeds by following the recommended period for use after pesticide application
5. Minimise mycotoxins (aflatoxin) levels and heavy metals (Lead, Mercury) in preserved and stored feeds. For example, the use of Aflasafe to manage aflatoxin. It is used mainly on maize (apply 30-35 days after planting, which is about 2-3 weeks before flowering, by side-dressing along the rows on the soil surface).
6. Avoid feed adulteration and contamination with foreign objects that cause quality changes and lead to lower-quality feeds.
7. Establish feed testing laboratories at the County level, create awareness of the need for feed testing, and train more laboratory staff on feed testing
8. Train and sensitise farmers and business operators on feed safety and standards and associated changes

4.3.4 Intervention 4. Strategies to improve feed processing and value addition

1. Use of modern and efficient feed processing technologies (high rate chopper, grass shredder, feed pelletiser, chaff /straw crusher, feed production line for feed centres) (Photos 4.5 and 4.6)
2. Enhance access to quality feed and ingredients: inclusion of feed additives such as enzymes, probiotics, and organic acids; and fodder biofortification, for example, with trace elements (e.g. zinc, selenium, cobalt, copper, iron, manganese, boron)
3. Organise farmers into groups and associations that buy feeds and feed ingredients, and distribute them to their members.
4. Registration of feed operators, feed stockists and agro vets who trade on feed and feed ingredients
5. Establishment and enhancement of feed analysis laboratories at the County level
6. Reduced cost of modern feed technology, equipment and power by the use of alternative renewable energy (e.g. wind, solar, geothermal, biogas, bagasse)
7. Enhance farmer skill and capacity building in good feed manufacturing practices, including feed formulation, processing and value addition -
8. Encourage participation of the youths vulnerable and marginalised groups (VMGs) in feed production and processing business
9. Develop specific credit facilities for youths to engage in youth processing enterprises

Photo 4-5. Animal feed shredder                           

Source: www.alibaba.com

Photo 4-6. Pelletizer
Source: www.alibaba.com

4.4 Pillar 4. Feed stability

4.4.1 Intervention 1. Climate change mitigation and adaptation

1. Use of climate information advisories for preparedness and disaster management
2. Adoption of climate smart agriculture technologies, innovations and management practices, participatory rangeland management for increased forage production and sustainable land management
3. Provision of water for livestock in strategic areas along migratory and livestock marketing routes

4.4.2 Intervention 2. Improved economic performance

1. Increased investment in the feed resource sector, rural infrastructure and improved land tenure systems
2. Enhanced research in feed technologies and agricultural extension services in feed production
3. Develop technologies that reduce post-harvest losses
4. Enhance feed value chain functionality through the proper producer to market linkages
5. Improve financial inclusion and access for small holder processors, feed developers and marketers through sensitisation to form/join SACCOs and cooperatives for collective bargaining)
6. Promote feed cottage industry for livestock feed value addition

4.4.3 Intervention 3. Market stability

1. Development of efficient and transparent market systems that connect feed producers with feed buyers
2. Promotion of competition and fair-trade practices in the feed industry
3. Establishment of feed price stabilisation mechanisms to reduce price volatility and protect farmers against sudden price fluctuations through formation of cooperatives for easy access of cheaper inputs
4. Investment in feed storage, transport, and distribution infrastructure to ensure timely and efficient delivery of feed products
5. Improvement of market information systems to provide accurate and up-to-date information on feed prices, availability, and quality
6. Encouragement of value addition and diversification in the feed industry to create new markets and products
7. Promotion of exports to expand market opportunities for feed producers

4.4.4 Intervention 4. Institutional stability

1. Investment in feed research and development to improve feed quality, safety, and nutrition
2. Development of new and innovative feed products that meet the nutritional needs of different livestock species and production systems
3. Adoption of new technologies and production methods that increase efficiency and reduce environmental impact
4. Promotion of public-private partnerships to encourage collaboration and knowledge-sharing in feed research and development
5. Development of training and capacity-building programs to enhance the knowledge and skills of feed producers and other stakeholders in the feed industry
6. Establishment of research institutions and facilities to support feed research and development activities
7. Promotion of private sector participation in the feed industry to encourage innovation and competition

4.4.5 Intervention 5. Enabling policy and regulatory environment

1. Development of clear and consistent feed regulations and standards that ensure the safety and quality of feed products
2. Promotion of feed quality control and monitoring systems to detect and prevent feed contamination and adulteration
3. Streamlining of feed import and export procedures to reduce trade barriers and increase market access. Strategic importation of ingredients to cover for the needs of the industry at crucial times. Limiting importation of finished feeds to safeguard our industry.
4. Encouragement of investment in the feed industry through tax incentives and other policy measures
5. Provision of support services, such as credit, extension, and technical assistance, to the feed industry to enhance its competitiveness and sustainability.

4.4.6 Intervention 6. Livelihoods improvement

1. Gender mainstream and inclusion in feed subsector
2. Livelihoods diversification and protection of livestock assets
3. Continuous awareness creation using participatory approach

4.4.7 Intervention 7. Community conflict management

1. Create enabling environment for improved community dialogues, resource sharing and political tolerance
2. Empower community resource management committees

4.5 Summary of Strategic Livestock feed interventions and management through the drought cycle

4.5.1 Strategic Livestock feed management through phases of the drought cycle

1. Opportunity to increase area under pasture and fodder production for biomass yield and quality
2. Contingency feed planning and budgeting with well-defined triggers for response
3. Feed bulking, preservation and conservation, hay, silage haylage and reserved Standing hay
4. Feed Infrastructure development logistical planning, hay stores, feed centers and water at farm level and along stock routes in ASALS
5. Producers and stakeholder capacity building on feed security
6. Diversified options for feed production, including irrigation and adopted varieties for drought
7. Best technologies in feed preparation and processing
8. Grazing management and planning with grazing management committees to develop Wet and dry season grazing plans

1. Assess available forage resources and estimate carrying capacity.
2. Develop contingency plans for feed supplementation.
3. Conduct soil and pasture assessments.
4. Implement rotational or planned grazing management practices
5. Educate livestock owners about drought management strategies
6. Enhance livestock offtakes and destocking programmes
7. Triger community dialogues for resource sharing and conflict management
8. Strategic stocking of feeds in feed centres and supplementary feed supplies
9. Commercial feed bulking, subsidised feed business Credit availability for investment and marketing for stable feed industry
10. Improved feed utilisation also explore crop residues feeding and utilisation
11. Fortification of stable, straws and hays and enhanced feed block manufacturing
12. Trigger grazing management plans, planned grazing and paddocking within demarcated range blocks

1. Implement supplementary feeding programs including conserved Hay and silage feeding
2. Conduct feed analysis for strategic feeding as per animal requirement for Maintenance – strategic feeding
3. Explore alternative feed sources Industrial wastes and crop residue utilisation
4. Adjust stocking rates and implement destocking strategies.
5. Prioritise feed resources based on animal condition and productivity.
6. Provide emergency feed assistance; emergency livestock feeding – Survival mash, UMMB, Range cubes , demystified blocks
7. Collaborate with local feed suppliers and farmers for linkages
8. Offer technical support and guidance to livestock owners
9. Herd segregation, migration, moving animals to feeding camps and enhance animal health interventions

1. Assess rangeland condition and implement rehabilitation measures.
2. Develop long-term feed management plans.
3. Promote sustainable grazing practices.
4. Support restocking and herd rebuilding efforts.
5. Continue education and training programs for livestock owners.
6. Enhanced feed production using innovations, technologies, and improved farm practices
7. Capacity building of livestock feed value chain actors
8. Develop enabling policies
9. Planned deliberate restocking of various livestock species
10. Explore alternative pasture sources and livestock feed TIMPs adoption
11. Continuing education and training programs for livestock owners on sustainable feed and grazing management practices.

4.5.2 Key Recommendations

1. Consult with local agricultural extension services, veterinarians, and livestock experts.
2. Effective management of livestock during the drought cycle is crucial.
3. Understanding the five stages and appropriate interventions is key.
4. Collaboration with local experts ensures tailored solutions for specific conditions.
5. All interventions should be tailored to sustainable feed supplies geared towards farmer resilience building

CHAPTER 5 FEED AND NUTRITION SECURITY OUTPUTS, OUTCOMES AND IMPACTS

5.1 Importance of feed and nutrition security

5.2 Outputs

1. Improved animal growth: Higher feed productivity means animals receive better nutrition, resulting in enhanced growth rates. Animals can reach market weight faster, leading to increased efficiency in meat, milk, or egg production.
2. Enhanced feed conversion ratio (FCR): FCR is the ratio of feed consumed to weight gained by animals. Higher feed productivity often corresponds to a more favourable FCR, indicating that animals convert feed into body mass more efficiently. This leads to reduced feed costs per unit of output.
3. Higher production output: Improved feed productivity leads to increased production of animal products such as meat, milk, and eggs. This helps meet the growing demand for food and enhances the availability of nutritious animal-based protein sources.

5.3 Outcomes

1. Cost savings: When animals are more efficient at converting feed into body mass, it reduces the amount of feed required per unit of output. This leads to cost savings for farmers and producers by lowering feed expenses, which can significantly impact their profitability.
2. Improved profitability: Increased feed productivity can directly contribute to higher profitability in the livestock industry. By reducing production costs and maximising output, farmers can enhance their financial performance and achieve better returns on their investments.
3. Enhanced resource efficiency: Efficient feed utilisation means fewer resources are required to produce the same amount of animal products. This includes land, water, energy, and feed ingredients. By optimising resource efficiency, increased feed productivity promotes sustainability and reduces the environmental footprint of livestock production.
4. Enhanced competitiveness: Improved feed productivity enhances the competitiveness of the livestock industry. By optimising production efficiency, farmers can offer high-quality products at competitive prices, both in domestic and international markets. This can lead to increased market share and business opportunities.
5. Animal welfare benefits: When animals receive better nutrition through increased feed productivity, it positively impacts their health and welfare (Appendix 6). Adequate and balanced diets promote optimal growth, reduce the risk of diseases, and contribute to overall well-being and quality of life for the animals.
6. Reduced environmental impact: Higher feed productivity can lead to reduced environmental impact associated with livestock production. By minimising resource inputs and waste generation, such as manure and greenhouse gas emissions, it supports more sustainable and eco-friendly farming practices.
7. Improved resilience to climate change: Climate change can impact the availability and quality of natural forage, affecting livestock productivity. By diversifying feed sources and implementing climate-smart feeding practices, such as conservation agriculture and agroforestry, livestock farmers can enhance the resilience of their operations to climate change.
8. Reduced overgrazing and land degradation: Insufficient livestock feed can lead to overgrazing as animals search for food, putting pressure on the available grazing lands. This can result in land degradation, soil erosion, and loss of biodiversity (pasture condition scoring [PCS]) (Appendix 7). Sufficient feed availability can help reduce the burden on grazing lands and promote sustainable land management practices

5.4 Impact

1. Food security and availability: Increasing feed productivity contributes to addressing food security challenges by producing more food with fewer resources. It helps ensure a stable and sufficient supply of animal-based products to meet the nutritional needs of a growing global population.
2. Sustainable resource utilisation: Efficient feed utilisation helps optimise the use of natural resources. With increased feed productivity, fewer resources such as land, water, and energy are required per unit of animal product, resulting in a more sustainable agricultural system.
3. Reduced environmental impact: Higher feed productivity can lead to reduced environmental impact associated with livestock production. By minimising resource inputs and waste generation, such as manure and greenhouse gas emissions, it supports more sustainable and eco-friendly farming practices.
4. Reduced economic losses: Livestock resource-based conflicts can result in economic losses for livestock keepers. These losses may include the destruction or theft of livestock, damage to infrastructure, and disrupted market access. When conflicts are reduced, livestock keepers experience fewer economic losses, allowing them to invest in their herds, expand their operations, or diversify their income sources.
5. Enhanced social cohesion: Conflict over limited resources can strain social relationships and community cohesion among livestock keepers. By reducing such conflicts, social cohesion can be restored or improved. This can foster cooperation, knowledge sharing, and collective action among livestock keepers, leading to stronger community networks and the potential for collaborative initiatives to address common challenges.
6. Food security and availability: Increasing feed productivity contributes to addressing food security challenges by producing more food with fewer resources. It helps ensure a stable and sufficient supply of animal-based products to meet the nutritional needs of a growing global population

APPENDICES

Appendix 5. Integrated Food Security classification food security analytical framework